Yakushima
Country
Japan
Inscribed in
1993
Criteria
(vii)
(ix)
The conservation outlook for this site has been assessed as "good with some concerns" in the latest assessment cycle. Explore the Conservation Outlook Assessment for the site below. You have the option to access the summary, or the detailed assessment.
Located in the interior of Yaku Island, at the meeting-point of the palaearctic and oriental biotic regions, Yakushima exhibits a rich flora, with some 1,900 species and subspecies, including ancient specimens of the sugi (Japanese cedar). It also contains a remnant of a warm-temperate ancient forest that is unique in this region. © UNESCO
Summary
2020 Conservation Outlook
Finalised on
02 Dec 2020
Good with some concerns
Current state and trend of VALUES
Low Concern
Trend
Stable
Overall THREATS
Overall PROTECTION and MANAGEMENT
Full assessment
Finalised on
02 Dec 2020
Description of values
Forests of outstanding natural beauty
Criterion
(vii)
An outstanding feature of Yakushima World Heritage site is the remnant old-growth forests of often very large and aesthetically impressive conifers, in particular the Japanese Cedar, some of which are thousands of years old. This is a now rare and outstanding example of the original primeval cedar forests that were once extensive in Japan (World Heritage Committee, 2013). The very high rainfall results in a mantle of mosses through the forests, enhancing their natural beauty; the very wet conditions mean that the forests are often shrouded in mist, adding to the romance for the visitor to these ancient forests. The numerous large cedar trees, the largest of which are known as 'Yakusugi', are revered by the Japanese community and are sought out as special attractions by visitors, probably representing the main attractions for the many tourists that visit the site. The lowland evergreen broadleaved forest (dominated by evergreen oaks, Lauraceae and Distylium racemosum) is also visually distinct and readily viewed from the road.
Outstanding scenic beauty
Criterion
(vii)
Yakushima World Heritage site embraces some of the more spectacular mountainous landscape that dominates this small island, the central peak rising to almost 2,000 metres from the surrounding sea. The multiple rocky peaks and sculpted granite outcrops are subtended by fast running streams created by the abundant rainfall, cutting deep rocky gorges down to the sea. The largely treeless summits, often blanketed in snow during winter, provide for extensive views across the whole of the forested island to the sea beyond.
An island ecosystem with an unbroken sequence of old-growth forests from subtropical to cool-temperate climate
Criterion
(ix)
Yakushima is an island ecosystem with high mountains––a characteristic rare in the region at around 30 degrees north latitude. It contains a unique remnant of a warm-temperate primeval forest which has been much reduced elsewhere in the region (World Heritage Committee, 2013). The insular nature combined with the very rugged terrain has ensured survival of a full sequence of vegetation from the alpine vegetation of the summits down to warm temperate rainforest that extends down to sea level. Much of the conservation value of the site is reflected in the 200 plant species that have the southern limit of their natural distribution on the island (UNEP-WCMC, 1993).
The property is very important for scientific studies on evolutionary biology, biogeography, vegetation succession, interaction of lowland and upland systems, hydrology, and warm-temperate ecosystem processes (World Heritage Committee, 2013).
The property is very important for scientific studies on evolutionary biology, biogeography, vegetation succession, interaction of lowland and upland systems, hydrology, and warm-temperate ecosystem processes (World Heritage Committee, 2013).
A diverse biota exhibiting significant endemism
Criterion
(ix)
Yakushima is an island ecosystem that supports a comparatively diverse biota, comprising some 1,900 species and subspecies of flora (94 of which are endemic), 16 mammal species (including three endemic subspecies) and 150 bird species and more than 1900 species of insect. Of the plants, there are more than 600 species of moss recorded, testament to the wet forest environment. The biota demonstrates a significant degree of endemism, evidence of on-going evolution during relatively long-term isolation from other landmasses (UNEP-WCMC, 1993; World Heritage Committee, 2013).
Assessment information
Major tourism visitation is creating unacceptable levels of impacts on vulnerable parts of the natural environment and evidence suggests that management is not fully meeting the challenge of the visitor numbers or impacts. It is apparent that the population level of the deer is excessive and threatening important plants, although remedial action is now being taken. Progress achieved in that regard needs to be closely monitored.
Management needs to factor in the natural processes of typhoons and landslides to avoid exacerbating the impact.
The threat of air pollution and invasive species is present but not yet adequately understood. Combating the threat of nematodes and any other threats to endangered locally endemic Pinus amamiana needs further research.
Management needs to factor in the natural processes of typhoons and landslides to avoid exacerbating the impact.
The threat of air pollution and invasive species is present but not yet adequately understood. Combating the threat of nematodes and any other threats to endangered locally endemic Pinus amamiana needs further research.
Avalanches/ Landslides
(Landslides)
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Landslides are relatively common on steep terrain but can be regarded as a largely natural process. Roads may aggravate the impact (Yukiyoshi Teramoto and Etsuro Shimokawa 2009, Yakumonkey Guidebook).
Air Pollution
(Air pollution (international))
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
Research has detected fall out from air pollution allegedly derived from China (Fackler 2013).
There is debate about the role of the air pollution on the threatened Yakushima white pine (Pinus amamiana) - an endangered species - that are dying. Studies show some evidence of aerosol and dust impact on Yakushima but do not suggest it as the cause of death of P. amamiana trees (Nakano et al, 2017). A more likely cause of death is nematodes (Gymnosperm Database 2017).
There is debate about the role of the air pollution on the threatened Yakushima white pine (Pinus amamiana) - an endangered species - that are dying. Studies show some evidence of aerosol and dust impact on Yakushima but do not suggest it as the cause of death of P. amamiana trees (Nakano et al, 2017). A more likely cause of death is nematodes (Gymnosperm Database 2017).
Problematic Native Species
(Deer population over-abundant)
Inside site
, Throughout(>50%)
Outside site
The deer population, in the opinion of some, is over-abundant and damaging natural values. The biological balance of Yakushima Island is currently being compromised by overpopulation of sika deer (Fujimaki et al., 2016). Culling of deer is now being undertaken (Japan Forestry Agency in Fackler 2013; Stakeholder consultation 2017).This course of action would lead to a decrease in the median deer population size and would further ensure a high probability of achieving the 2022 target population size across most zones (up to 85 %), even if catch levels were not increased (Fujimaki et al., 2016).
Tourism/ visitors/ recreation
(Impacts from tourism/visitor use)
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
It is evident that there is an ongoing and growing problem with managing the concentrated impact of a large number of visitors to the area (Periodic Report 2003, Forbes 2011), notwithstanding that visitor numbers have declined from a peak in 2008.
The 'octopus' shape of the property, with long narrow 'arms' and an exceptionally high perimeter to area ratio means that the area is very vulnerable to the impacts of threats emanating from adjacent lands. There is a clear case for review of the boundaries and simplification of forest management on the island. Fortunately, most of the adjacent lands are public lands but a different management regime applies and there is never-the-less some potential for threats to arise from these adjacent lands. Some adjacent areas of plantations in these forests raise the real possibility of logging well into the future. The logging activity could severely damage the habitats of rare mycoheterotrophic plants recently recognized.
The deer population of course knows no boundaries and the population within the site and associated impacts is very dependent on the management of deer on surrounding lands. The mobility of the deer means that deer control in reality is not within direct control of the site management and must depend on a cooperative whole-of-island approach; a landscape or ecosystem level of management. Indeed the sire represents such a small proportion of the island that deer culling in forests outside the site should be adequate to reduce impacts within the site.
The deer population of course knows no boundaries and the population within the site and associated impacts is very dependent on the management of deer on surrounding lands. The mobility of the deer means that deer control in reality is not within direct control of the site management and must depend on a cooperative whole-of-island approach; a landscape or ecosystem level of management. Indeed the sire represents such a small proportion of the island that deer culling in forests outside the site should be adequate to reduce impacts within the site.
Logging/ Wood Harvesting
(Forestry in adjoining lands)
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
There are significant areas of cedar plantations established that may attract future logging operations when plantations are mature (Forbes 2011, Google Earth imagery 2014). Recently, several new localities and new species of mycoheterotrophic plants have been discovered where logging activities are undergoing (Suetsugu, 2015; Suetsugu, 2016a; 2016b; Suetsugu et al., 2018). The logging activity could severely damage the habitats of rare mycoheterotrophic plants (Ecological Society of Japan 2020).
Invasive Non-Native/ Alien Species
(Non-native species)
Inside site
, Throughout(>50%)
The raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides) is now well established on the island but the nature of the ecological impact is not clear, and there is no evidence of research or control efforts (NIES 2014).
Earthquakes/ Tsunamis
(Earthquakes are a feature of the region.)
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Although Yakushima appears to be geologically stable, surrounding regions are prone to volcanism and earthquakes which can impact on Yakushima and create landslides on the steep topography (Google Earth earthquake data base 2017).
Storms/Flooding
(Typhoons)
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
Outside site
Yakushima is within the northern hemisphere typhoon zone and is occasionally hit by typhoons that bring strong winds and cause landslips (Witham 2014) and damage to trees (Bellingham et al., 1996; Takashima et al., 2009), which can be regarded as a largely natural process (which is nevertheless likely to become more intensive and more frequent with the onset of climate change).
A number of the identified threats to the site’s values and integrity are from natural processes (earthquake, typhoon, landslides). A number of identified threats and potential threats are problematic to assess for significance but never the less could become serious threats; it is these threats that require further research as a matter of priority (invasive species (e.g raccoon dog), air pollution, nematodes).
The biggest current threat so far is undoubtedly the threat posed by visitor impacts, which is exacerbated by a management regime that appears not to be fully meeting the challenge of increasing numbers and impacts. The management plan does not appear to have been effective in guiding address of the visitor impacts issue. The continuing trend of decreasing visitation may be a response to overcrowding. Visitor experience needs to be monitored. Another major threat is the impacts of the overpopulation of deer (Yakushima sika), which is current and serious. Although it is being given attention, the management response needs to be constantly monitored and adapted. Strategies to address any of the above-mentioned impacts from visitors, deer and raccoon dog will need to be at the level of the island as a whole, rather than being confined to the World Heritage site.
The biggest current threat so far is undoubtedly the threat posed by visitor impacts, which is exacerbated by a management regime that appears not to be fully meeting the challenge of increasing numbers and impacts. The management plan does not appear to have been effective in guiding address of the visitor impacts issue. The continuing trend of decreasing visitation may be a response to overcrowding. Visitor experience needs to be monitored. Another major threat is the impacts of the overpopulation of deer (Yakushima sika), which is current and serious. Although it is being given attention, the management response needs to be constantly monitored and adapted. Strategies to address any of the above-mentioned impacts from visitors, deer and raccoon dog will need to be at the level of the island as a whole, rather than being confined to the World Heritage site.
Management system
Article 3: "The Committee (Yakushima World Heritage Liaison Committee) shall be composed of the following organizations:
• Kyushu District National Parks and Wildlife Office
• Kumamoto Regional Forestry Office
• Kagoshima Prefecture
• Kagoshima Prefecture Board of Education
In addition, the Committee may decide to ask representatives of the local governments of Yakushima-cho to attend Committee meetings to express their opinions." (Management Plan 2012).
Notwithstanding some small but significant changes in the Management Plan (2012), the management system for Yakushima remains overly complex and detached from the local community. Local Governments on the island "may" be consulted, far from being active partners in management. The combination of multiple legislative mechanisms, a complex composite management agency, a management plan that provides only limited and outdated guidance, unnecessarily complicated sub-tenures (Yakushima Wilderness Area, Yakushima National Park, Special Natural Monument, Biosphere Reserve and Yakushima Forest Ecosystem Reserve), an overly complicated zoning plan and multiple agency field operations in such a relatively small site appears inefficient and cumbersome. It is apparent that the management system has failed to anticipate and be innovative in responding to increasing visitor pressures and other emerging threats such as raccoon dog, air pollution, and nematodes (Management Plan 1995 and 2012, Forbes 2011).
In 2009, Yakushima Scientific Council of World Heritage Site was launched by expanding Yakushima World Heritage Liaison Committee and including several scientists to monitor the situation of the site and to make several action plans for the conservation and sustainable use of the resources. Pressures made by Yakushima Sika deer and tourists are recognized as two main threats. Recently significant decrease of Yakushima Sika deer populaton was confirmed by the effective control on initiative of the committee.
• Kyushu District National Parks and Wildlife Office
• Kumamoto Regional Forestry Office
• Kagoshima Prefecture
• Kagoshima Prefecture Board of Education
In addition, the Committee may decide to ask representatives of the local governments of Yakushima-cho to attend Committee meetings to express their opinions." (Management Plan 2012).
Notwithstanding some small but significant changes in the Management Plan (2012), the management system for Yakushima remains overly complex and detached from the local community. Local Governments on the island "may" be consulted, far from being active partners in management. The combination of multiple legislative mechanisms, a complex composite management agency, a management plan that provides only limited and outdated guidance, unnecessarily complicated sub-tenures (Yakushima Wilderness Area, Yakushima National Park, Special Natural Monument, Biosphere Reserve and Yakushima Forest Ecosystem Reserve), an overly complicated zoning plan and multiple agency field operations in such a relatively small site appears inefficient and cumbersome. It is apparent that the management system has failed to anticipate and be innovative in responding to increasing visitor pressures and other emerging threats such as raccoon dog, air pollution, and nematodes (Management Plan 1995 and 2012, Forbes 2011).
In 2009, Yakushima Scientific Council of World Heritage Site was launched by expanding Yakushima World Heritage Liaison Committee and including several scientists to monitor the situation of the site and to make several action plans for the conservation and sustainable use of the resources. Pressures made by Yakushima Sika deer and tourists are recognized as two main threats. Recently significant decrease of Yakushima Sika deer populaton was confirmed by the effective control on initiative of the committee.
Effectiveness of management system
Management appears to have limited effectiveness in responding to threats, in particular management of increasing visitor numbers and impacts.
Management appears overly reactive rather than proactive (Forbes 2011, Management Plan 2012). The reasons for the fall in visitor numbers deserves research in case it is a dissatisfaction with quality of experience, expense, poor facilities etc.
Management appears overly reactive rather than proactive (Forbes 2011, Management Plan 2012). The reasons for the fall in visitor numbers deserves research in case it is a dissatisfaction with quality of experience, expense, poor facilities etc.
Boundaries
It is likely that if Yakushima was nominated in the present, the current boundaries would be rejected as inappropriate. The boundary appears mostly illogical when related to the landscape, topography, conservation attributes and manageability. It also fails to include some attributes that would make a valuable contribution to the integrity of the site.
The need for boundary review was noted at the time of original listing (IUCN Evaluation 1993) but no improvements have been achieved in the 20+ years since listing and remains a concern more than ever.
The need for boundary review was noted at the time of original listing (IUCN Evaluation 1993) but no improvements have been achieved in the 20+ years since listing and remains a concern more than ever.
Integration into regional and national planning systems
Available documents fail to reveal what if any links there are between the property and regional/national planning systems.
Relationships with local people
Local government have in the past not been integrated into management of the site, but in more recent documentation they appear to be consulted (Periodic Report 2003, WHC Website 2014). Information available is not adequate to fully assess this issue, but it is apparent that there is significant involvement of local people in at least tour guiding businesses. An official certificated guide system of Yakushima Town was launched in 2016 and an official manual was compiled in 2018 to ensure strong and consistent messaging to visitors about the site and local culture (IUCN Consultation, 2020). But still, local people are not adequately involved in management planning. In the future, it would be desirable to provide more direct participation in on-going planning and management.
Legal framework
For such a relatively small World Heritage site, the number of different legal statutes that apply seems unnecessarily complex. Enforcement is the responsibility of respective different agencies, there appears to be little inter-agency delegation and so this complicates enforcement (Management Plan 1995 and 2012, Periodic Reporting 2003).
Law enforcement
Insufficient information available.
Implementation of Committee decisions and recommendations
The original evaluation recommended "Suggestions for improvements to the boundaries and strengthening the management of the site should be sent to the Japanese authorities along with noting concern over the impacts on the site from tourism." (IUCN Evaluation, 1993). No improvements in the boundaries have been forthcoming. The concerns over the impacts on the site from tourism appear to have only increased, even after a trend of decline in numbers since 2008 (Forbes 2011). Expansion of the World Heritage site and/or greater integration of ecological and visitor/tourism management could be beneficial for the island ecosystem as a whole and to spread visitor impacts.
Sustainable use
There are concerns about the sustainability of tourism use, notwithstanding that visitor numbers have peaked in 2008 and are now in decline. There would need to be commensurate improvements in management of impacts. Perhaps too much tourism is being (or allowed to be) concentrated into the site instead of being spread to other outstanding attractions on the island. An island level integrated tourism management plan would help.
Sustainable finance
It is apparent that there are some issues with funding, not the least of which is the lack of direct repatriation of visitor fees to park management. Funding for management is dependent upon separate funding of the various participating agencies rather than an allocation direct to the property (Forbes 2011). A donation system has been initiated (IUCN consultation, 2017), however, some concerns have been raised about its management (IUCN Consultation, 2020).
Staff capacity, training, and development
Staffing numbers are not revealed in the Periodic Reporting but are reportedly limited to a total of 3 persons from different agencies. The one important admission in the Periodic Reporting was the inadequate level of staffing. No data was available regarding training and in Periodic Reporting the State Party advises that there are no needs for training. On this basis, staff training and development is assessed as being of some concern, however, more information is needed.
Education and interpretation programs
If the two major visitor centres on the island and their associated education programmes are used to judge off-site education and interpretation, it is impressive. An official certificated guide system of Yakushima Town was launched in 2016 and an official manual was compiled in 2018 to ensure strong and consistent messaging to visitors about the site and local culture (IUCN Consultation, 2020).
The Academic Society of Yakushimaology was launched in 2014 and continues to hold annual meetings. The number of members are more or less 100, of which half are island residents and half outside researchers. The annual meetings have provided deeper understanding of the island, both in nature and in humanities, to consider the future and recent issues (IUCN Consultation, 2020).
The Academic Society of Yakushimaology was launched in 2014 and continues to hold annual meetings. The number of members are more or less 100, of which half are island residents and half outside researchers. The annual meetings have provided deeper understanding of the island, both in nature and in humanities, to consider the future and recent issues (IUCN Consultation, 2020).
Tourism and visitation management
Management of tourism in the property is admitted by the State Party (Periodic Reporting 2003) to be an issue, especially on the mountain trails. It is also independently identified as an issue (Forbes 2011).
Trampling of vegetation, crowding on trails and similar issues have been documented by both State Party and in published papers and online visitor reviews. Recent documentation suggests the issue is on-going. The Yakushima Association for the Promotion of Ecotourism was launched in 2009. (Ministry of Environment 2014) However, the objective of the organisation is described as “…the institution of ecotours that gives visitors a real feel for the long-held lifestyles and traditions that still remain in the settlements on the island." The association also said to serve as a means for promoting the decentralization of use that is currently concentrated in the mountainous areas (Ministry of Environment 2014).
It is apparent that there are on-going problems with visitor management, both in terms of quality of experience and avoidance/minimization of impacts. The standard of presentation of off-site attractions is mostly very limited, detracting from the overall island visitor experience and from the World Heritage site image as there is limited distinct definition for the casual visitor between the World Heritage site and the rest of the island.
Trampling of vegetation, crowding on trails and similar issues have been documented by both State Party and in published papers and online visitor reviews. Recent documentation suggests the issue is on-going. The Yakushima Association for the Promotion of Ecotourism was launched in 2009. (Ministry of Environment 2014) However, the objective of the organisation is described as “…the institution of ecotours that gives visitors a real feel for the long-held lifestyles and traditions that still remain in the settlements on the island." The association also said to serve as a means for promoting the decentralization of use that is currently concentrated in the mountainous areas (Ministry of Environment 2014).
It is apparent that there are on-going problems with visitor management, both in terms of quality of experience and avoidance/minimization of impacts. The standard of presentation of off-site attractions is mostly very limited, detracting from the overall island visitor experience and from the World Heritage site image as there is limited distinct definition for the casual visitor between the World Heritage site and the rest of the island.
Monitoring
Yakushima Scientific Council of the World Heritage Site has made plans to monitor the conditions of the vegetation, deer population, trails and wetlands in high altitude, as well as visitor numbers, and reported annually (IUCN Consultation, 2020). However, limited information is available regarding the monitoring programme.
Research
There is increasing evidence of a management driven research agenda but most research activities appear opportunistic. Some useful intersections have occurred, for example, air pollution and death of endangered white pine, and investigation of aerosol and pollution carried from mainland Asia.
For such a small site, the overall protection and management systems in place appear unnecessarily complex (tenure, management plan, zoning, management agency) and in the 20+ years since listing, only relatively minor changes have been made, mostly adding to the bureaucratic complexity rather than simplifying. The question arises as to whether these components of protection and management deliver a high order of protection and management. It is apparent that whilst there is a reasonable level of protection for the OUV of the site, there are on-going issues relating to visitor management and management of the deer population.
The reality is that given the shape and boundaries of the site, it is vulnerable to external threats and effective management can only be achieved if there is a high level of coordination and collaboration on management of surrounding lands. This is especially the case with visitor management, feral species management and deer management.
There is considerable scope for improving protection and management. There is also a case for extending the property to include relevant forest areas to form a physically consolidated tract with greater opportunity for direct integrated management at the landscape scale. There is a clear need for systematic monitoring of values.
The reality is that given the shape and boundaries of the site, it is vulnerable to external threats and effective management can only be achieved if there is a high level of coordination and collaboration on management of surrounding lands. This is especially the case with visitor management, feral species management and deer management.
There is considerable scope for improving protection and management. There is also a case for extending the property to include relevant forest areas to form a physically consolidated tract with greater opportunity for direct integrated management at the landscape scale. There is a clear need for systematic monitoring of values.
Assessment of the effectiveness of protection and management in addressing threats outside the site
Some Concern
Most of the lands adjoining the site are owned and or administered by one or more government agencies (Ministry of the Environment, the Forestry Agency) The World Heritage Centre's website records that "In 2012, Kagoshima Prefecture and Yakushima Town joined as the management authorities, and the Plan was revised." However, the revised management plan records differently, that
"The Committee (Yakushima World Heritage Liaison Committee) shall be composed of the following organizations (all government):
• Kyushu District National Parks and Wildlife Office
• Kumamoto Regional Forestry Office
• Kagoshima Prefecture
• Kagoshima Prefecture Board of Education"
Further, Yakushima Town (know prior to 2007 as the two towns of Kamiyaku-cho and Yaku-cho) is not a part of the Committee and involvement is at the discretion of the Committee -"may decide to ask representatives of the local governments of Kamiyaku-cho and Yaku-cho to attend Committee meetings to express their opinions."
In 2009, Yakushima Scientific Council of the World Heritage Site was launched by expanding Yakushima World Heritage Liaison Committee and including several scientists to monitor the situation of the site and to make several action plans for the conservation and sustainable use of the resources. Pressures made by Yakushima Sika deer and tourists are recognized as two main threats. Recently, significant decrease of Yakushima Sika deer population was confirmed through effective control initiatives by the committee.
"The Committee (Yakushima World Heritage Liaison Committee) shall be composed of the following organizations (all government):
• Kyushu District National Parks and Wildlife Office
• Kumamoto Regional Forestry Office
• Kagoshima Prefecture
• Kagoshima Prefecture Board of Education"
Further, Yakushima Town (know prior to 2007 as the two towns of Kamiyaku-cho and Yaku-cho) is not a part of the Committee and involvement is at the discretion of the Committee -"may decide to ask representatives of the local governments of Kamiyaku-cho and Yaku-cho to attend Committee meetings to express their opinions."
In 2009, Yakushima Scientific Council of the World Heritage Site was launched by expanding Yakushima World Heritage Liaison Committee and including several scientists to monitor the situation of the site and to make several action plans for the conservation and sustainable use of the resources. Pressures made by Yakushima Sika deer and tourists are recognized as two main threats. Recently, significant decrease of Yakushima Sika deer population was confirmed through effective control initiatives by the committee.
Best practice examples
The Academic Society of Yakushimaology was launched in 2014 and has continued to hold annual meetings since then. The number of members are more or less 100, of which half are island residents and half outside researchers. The annual meetings have provided deeper understanding of the island, both in nature and in humanities, to consider the future and recent issues (IUCN Consultation, 2020).
Assessment of the current state and trend of World Heritage values
Low Concern
Trend
Stable
Overall the values of the site appear stable but various indicators and threats are evident or emerging that suggests a longer term trend towards deterioration in some attributes and values. The longer-term prognosis needs to be taken seriously. There is a distinct risk that management focus will continue to be driven by visitor management issues and wildlife management (native and introduced) given insufficient attention. The existence of the invasive species, the Raccoon Dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides) on the island should be a warning of the need for control of invasive species and that must be done at a 'whole-of-island' level. The identification of excessive impact of deer (a local endemic subspecies), die back of old-growth White Pine (Pinus amamiana) and spread of raccoon dog underline the potentially deteriorating state that demands a more proactive approach. In the absence of a systematic scientific monitoring programme, it may be difficult to identify changes underway.
Additional information
Outdoor recreation and tourism
Yaku Island has become an increasingly attractive destination for tourists, both domestic and international. The Yakushima World Heritage Site is an important component of that tourism. The numerous walking trails on the island, including in the site, provide an abundance of opportunities for health related exercise.
The tourism clearly makes an important economic contribution to the local island population and extending to Kagoshima on the mainland.
The tourism clearly makes an important economic contribution to the local island population and extending to Kagoshima on the mainland.
Wilderness and iconic features
The larger cedar trees, those considered to be over 1,000 years old, called "Yakusugi", are greatly revered and regarded as sacred by Japanese people. One consequence is that this generates substantial national tourism to the site, generating economic benefits to the island community through employment and provision of services. On the negative side, it places too much emphasis on access to these ancient trees and requires 'site hardening' to minimise impact of concentrated visitation.
Contribution to education
Several large and impressive visitor centres have been established on the island and are visited by most tourists to the island and the World Heritage Site. Emphasis in on education with a strong focus on the cedar forests, the WH site in particular. These facilities are also utilized for school education. These centres are an important complement to the WH site and provide great educational benefit to the wider population.
The several visitor centres on the island make a valuable contribution to education, especially education about the natural history of the island. The quality of education imparted by tour guides is unknown (data deficient).
By far the main source of benefits to the community is from tourism visitation to the site, tourism being driven by a combination of the 'Yakusugi' cedar trees and the spectacular mountain scenery. Benefits flowing to the Yaku Island community is primarily economic through the provision of services to visitors.
Educational benefits are significant and closely associated with tourism to the site.
Educational benefits are significant and closely associated with tourism to the site.
| № | Organization | Brief description of Active Projects | Website |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Osamu Nagafuchi, University of Shiga, Japan | Environmental factors influencing the load of long-range transported air pollutants on Pinus amamiana in Yakushima Island. | |
| 2 | Kagoshima Prefecture has formulated “Type II Specified Wildlife (Yaku-sika) Control Plan” covering the whole Yakushima Island in 2017 based on the Wildlife Protection, Control and Hunting Management Act. | A scientific panel to monitor and advise the Scientific Council on management of the Yaku-sika (deer) |
References
| № | References |
|---|---|
| 1 |
Alternative Tourism (2014) Yakushima Island: http://www.alternative-tourism.com/Japan/Tourism/Natural_pl…
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| 2 |
Atsushi Kume, Osamu Nagafuchi, Suguru Akune, Nobutake Nakatani, Masaaki Chiwa, Kenshi Tetsuka, Environmental factors influencing the load of long-range transported air pollutants on Pinus amamiana in Yakushima Island, Japan,Ecological Research,Vol.25,No.1,pp.233-243,2010.01
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| 3 |
Atsushi Takashima, Atsushi Kume, Shigejiro Yoshida, Takuhiko Murakami, Tsuyoshi Kajisa, Nobuya Mizoue Discontinuous DBH–height relationship of Cryptomeria japonica on Yakushima Island: effect of frequent typhoons on the maximum height. Ecological Research September 2009, Volume 24, Issue 5, pp 1003-1011
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| 4 |
Bellingham, P.J., Kohyama, T. & Aiba, S. (1996) The effects of a typhoon on Japanese warm temperate rainforests. Ecological Research 11: 229-247.
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| 5 |
David A. Hill (1999) Seasonal variation in the feeding behavior and diet of Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata yakui) in lowland forest of Yakushima American Journal of Primatology Volume 43, Issue 4, pages 305–320, 1997 Article first published online: 6 Jan 1999
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| 6 |
Ecological Society of Japan (2020) https://www.esj.ne.jp/esj/Activity/2020Yakushima.html
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| 7 |
Fackler, Martin (2013) Scientist Says Pollution From China Is Killing a Japanese Island’s Trees. Yakushima Journal
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| 8 |
Forbes, Glenn (2011) Yakushima: Balancing long-term Environmental Sustainability and Economic Opportunity
http://www.k-junshin.ac.jp/juntan/libhome/bulletin/No42/for… |
| 9 |
Fujimaki A, Shioya K, Tagawa S, Matsuda H (2016) A theorethical approach for zone-based management of the sika deer population on Yakushima Island. Population Ecology 58:315-327.
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| 10 |
GEO 121 Wiki (2013) Yakushima, Japan https://sites.google.com/a/miamioh.edu/geo121f13/home/d2-ya…
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| 11 |
Invasive Species of Japan (2014) - Raccoon Dog Nyctereutes procyonoides National Institute for Environmental Studies http://www.nies.go.jp/biodiversity/invasive/DB/detail/10310…
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| 12 |
Kenji Suetsugu and Hirokazu Fukunaga (2016) Lecanorchis tabuawaensis (Orchidaceae) a new mycoheterotrophic plant from Yakushima Island, Japan PhytoKeys. 2016; (73): 125–135. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5109904/
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| 13 |
Kenji Suetsugua,*, Hirokazu Tsukayab and Hiroyoshi Ohashi (2016) (Sciaphila yakushimensis (Triuridaceae), a New Mycoheterotrophic Plant from Yakushima Island, Japan. Journal Japan Botany. 91: 1–6 (2016)
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| 14 |
Mahoney, Paul (2013) The Anbo Forestry Railway 1923: A Cultural Heritage Values Assessment. Unpublished report.
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| 15 |
Makoto Hagino (2016) The legal concept of ‘heritage’ in the world heritage convention: The case of Yakushima, Island. Journal of Marine and Island Cultures www.sciencedirect.com
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Suetsugu K, Fukunaga H (2016) Lecanorchis tabugawaensis (Orchidaceae, Vanilloideae), a new mycoheterotrophic plant from Yakushima Island, Japan. Phyto Keys 73: 125-135.
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Suetsugu K, Hsu TC, Kaneko S (2018) New natural hybrid in the genus Gastrodia: Gastrodia × nippo-uraiensis (Orchidaceae) from Yakushima Island, Japan. Taiwania 63:220-226.
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| 19 |
Suetsugu K (2015) First record of the mycoheterotrophic orchid Gastrodia uraiensis (Orchidaceae) from Yakushima Island, Japan. Acta Phytotaxonomica et Geobotanica 66: 193-196.
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| 20 |
Suetsugu K, Tsukaya H, Ohashi H (2016) Sciaphila yakushimensis (Triuridaceae) , a new mycoheterotrophic plant from Yakushima Island, Japan. Journal of Japanese Botany 91: 1-6.
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| 21 |
TOKUMARU, Hisae (2003) Nature Conservation on Yakushima Island : Kagoshima Prefecture’s Efforts. Nature Conservation Division, Kagoshima Prefectural Government Kagoshima
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| 22 |
Takahiro Okano a,*, Hiroyuki Matsuda
(2013 Biocultural diversity of Yakushima Island: Mountains, beaches, and sea. Journal of Marine and Island Cultures. Volume 2, Issue 2, December 2013, Pages 69-77
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| 23 |
Takanori Nakano, Yoriko Yokoo, Masao Okumura, Seo-Ryong Jean,4and Kenichi Satake (2012) Evaluation of the Impacts of Marine Salts and Asian Dust on the Forested Yakushima Island Ecosystem, a World Natural Heritage Site in Japan. Water Air Soil Pollut. 2012 Nov; 223(9): 5575–5597
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| 24 |
The Gymnosperm Database (2014) Pinus amamiana Yakushima white pine http://www.conifers.org/pi/Pinus_amamiana.php
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| 25 |
Toshihiko Yonezawa1*, Akihiko Shinomiya2 and Hiroyuki Motomura3 (2010) Freshwater fishes of Yaku-shima Island, Kagoshima Prefecture, southern Japan. National Museum of Nature and Science, Tokyo
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| 26 |
UNESCO World Heritage Centre (2014) Yakushima http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/662/
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| 27 |
Witham, Clive (2014) Yakushima: A Yakumonkey Guide. Siesta Press
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| 28 |
YAKUSHIMA - WORLD HERITAGE (includes annotated Google Earth image) Japan Ministry of Environment. https://www.env.go.jp/nature/isan/worldheritage/en/yakushim…
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| 29 |
Yakushima World Heritage Area Management Plan (1995)
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| 30 |
Yakushima World Heritage Area Management Plan (2012). https://www.env.go.jp/en/nature/wh/yakushima/index.html
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| 31 |
Yukiyoshi Teramoto and Etsuro Shimokawa 海岸林学会誌 (2009)(Journal of the Japanese Society of Coastal Forest) 8(2):92-97, 2009 Characteristics of slope failure and the effect of deforestation in a granite basin on Yakushima http://jscf.jp/Journal_PDF/JSCF08(2)/JSCF8(2)92-97E.pdf
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In the absence of data, it is difficult to establish the quality of tour guiding and whether this adequately represents the traditional culture of the island.