Central Suriname Nature Reserve

Country
Suriname
Inscribed in
2000
Criteria
(ix)
(x)
The conservation outlook for this site has been assessed as "significant concern" in the latest assessment cycle. Explore the Conservation Outlook Assessment for the site below. You have the option to access the summary, or the detailed assessment.
The Central Suriname Nature Reserve comprises 1.6 million ha of primary tropical forest of west-central Suriname. It protects the upper watershed of the Coppename River and the headwaters of the Lucie, Oost, Zuid, Saramaccz, and Gran Rio rivers and covers a range of topography and ecosystems of notable conservation value due to its pristine state. Its montane and lowland forests contain a high diversity of plant life with more than 5,000 vascular plant species collected to date. The Reserve's animals are typical of the region and include the jaguar, giant armadillo, giant river otter, tapir, sloths, eight species of primates and 400 bird species such as harpy eagle, Guiana cock-of-the-rock, and scarlet macaw. © UNESCO
Greg Pigalle CC BY NC ND 2.0
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Summary

2025 Conservation Outlook

Finalised on
11 أكتوبر 2025
Significant concern
Given the size and inaccessibility of the Central Suriname Nature Reserve, and the containment of the Reserve inside its own watershed, the site is still in a relatively good state of conservation, however growing threats and little on-the-ground management capacity are of increasing concern. One of the main threats is from logging operations that are encroaching on the north-western and north-eastern borders of the site, and have the potential to seriously fragment the forests outside the site. Other significant threats are from large-scale agricultural development and mining and illegal hunting and fishing, among others of the Guianan cock-of-the-rock and the jaguar. Protection and management of the site is of serious concern, as there is little management capacity to manage current and potential threats. There is an urgent need to develop on-the-ground management capacity in order to assure that the current conservation status is maintained, especially in the context of increasing encroachment of logging activities. The absence of a legal framework in Suriname to involve Indigenous and Maroon communities in the management of protected areas, coupled with the lack of recognition of their land rights, has led to ongoing struggles for these communities to maintain their traditional territories and way of life. It is also important to put in place a monitoring system to manage the threats outside of the World Heritage site and to detect impacts of current threats and avoid the negative effects of those threats within the CSNR. There is an urgent need to effectively, structurally and consistently involve the Indigenous and Tribal Peoples as rightsholders in the development and implementation of monitoring plans and management and governance systems.

Current state and trend of VALUES

Low Concern
Overall, the status of the World Heritage values of the Central Suriname Nature Reserve remain of low concern. This is largely due to the size and inaccessibility of the Reserve, the containment of the Reserve inside its own watershed, and the lack of significant threats. However, encroachment from logging and mining operations, poaching of key species, and the extraction of target plants are growing concerns that require urgent attention.

Overall THREATS

High Threat
Currently logging has increased within the vicinity of the World Heritage site and has begun to encroach within the site from the north-western and north-eastern borders as a result of increased accessibility by a road built for logging purposes in the Matawai area. The area bordering the Reserve is impacted by gold mining and there are proposed plans and a signed MOU for bauxite investments and construction of a hydroelectric dam in the Bakhuis Mountains to the West of the Reserve as well as large-scale agricultural development. Poaching and the extraction of animal and plant species, in particular illegal hunting of the Guianan cock-of-the-rock and the jaguar, are current, apparently increasing, and very concerning threats to the site.

Overall PROTECTION and MANAGEMENT

Serious Concern
Despite considerable effort and investment in the development of the management plan in 2003, there is very little on-the-ground capacity for management of the Reserve. A draft of a business management model for the CSNR was developed but the plan has not yet been implemented. The Suriname Conservation Fund (SCF) was established in 1999 with the support of Conservation International. The establishment of the Central Suriname Nature Reserve significantly impacted Indigenous and Maroon communities. The absence of a legal framework in Suriname to involve Indigenous and Maroon communities in the management of protected areas, coupled with the lack of recognition of their land rights, has led to ongoing struggles for these communities to maintain their traditional territories and way of life. The current human resources are insufficient to meet management needs. Additionally, there is no site-based capacity-building plan or program in place. Management is carried out by external staff, and their skills are not transferred to local personnel. Support is required to address and improve issues related to human resources, however funding sources are insecure, and budget constraints have hindered the implementation of both the management and annual plans. Additionally, since funding decisions are made at higher levels of government, it is challenging to determine the exact percentage of finances allocated to the reserve from national and international sources.

Full assessment

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Description of values

Ecological processes and variety of ecosystems

Criterion
(ix)
The Central Suriname Nature Reserve conserves a large portion of the easternmost portion of the Guiana Shield, an ancient, mineral-dense layer of the earth’s crust, formerly connected to the continent of Africa. As a geologically stable speciation centre, this region has produced a well-defined assemblage of biota including many endemics. The area of the Reserve falls within one of 26 Amazonia refugia as defined in Prance and Lovejoy (1985). The site encompasses significant vertical relief, topography and soil conditions, which have resulted in a variety of ecosystems. Such ecosystem variation across environmental gradients is necessary to allow organisms within these ecosystems to move in response to disturbance, adapt to change, and maintain gene flow between populations. The Reserve’s size, undisturbed state (a rare condition in Amazonian forest parks) and protection of the entire Coppename watershed will allow long-term functioning of the ecosystem (IUCN, 2000).

High diversity of plant life, including endemic and threatened species

Criterion
(x)
Although much basic inventory work remains to be done in the unexplored portions of the World Heritage site, it is clear that the Central Suriname Nature Reserve is a major reservoir for biota of the region. The Reserve is globally significant for its high diversity of plant life (6,000 vascular plant species), a number of which are endemic to the Guiana Shield and are threatened (IUCN, 2000).

Presence of unique habitat of a flagship species

Criterion
(x)
The Central Suriname Nature Reserve contains the largest known lek of the Rupicola rupicola (Guianan cock-of-the-rock) with 50 – 60 active males and is one of the most accessible and well-known sites to watch the Guianan cock-of-the-rock (Ebels et al., 2014).

High diversity of terrestrial mammals, including threatened mammal species

Criterion
(x)
A study comparing camera trapping data from seven tropical study sites, showed that the Central Suriname Nature Reserve had the highest terrestrial mammal species richness (Ahumada et al., 2011). This high number of terrestrial mammal species include threatened species, such as Lowland tapir (Tapirus terrestris), Giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla), Giant armadillo (Priodontes maximus), White-lipped peccary (Tayassu pecari) and the Oncilla (Leopardus tigrinus) (all assessed as Vulnerable (VU) in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, 2017). Of the 1,890 known species of vertebrates in Suriname, at least 65 are endemic to the country and likely occur within the World Heritage site. Many of the species are endemic to the site or even small areas within the site, such as the ecologically and geologically remarkable individual granite inselbergs (World Heritage Committee, 2014).

Assessment information

Low Threat
Due to the size, inaccessibility and containment in its own watershed, the Central Suriname Nature Reserve (CSNR) is currently subject mainly to low-level threats. However, the encroachment of logging into the site from the north-western and north-eastern borders is a growing issue, especially since the area became accessible by road in 2018. Pollution, poaching and the extraction of animal and plant species are also current threats to the site. Among the species at risk is the Guianan cock-of-the-rock (Rupicola rupicola), one of the key values of the CSNR, which is currently threatened by illegal extraction. Additionally, there is growing concern about poaching of jaguars, driven by illegal trafficking linked to international organized crime networks. Legal and illegal hunting and fishing inside the CSNR seems to be on the increase according to villagers' observations.
Logging, Harvesting & Controlling Trees
(Logging and wood harvesting)
High Threat
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
Outside site
Logging concessions and community forestry concessions in the vicinity of the Central Suriname Nature Reserve (CSNR) are causing fragmentation of the area bordering and even overlapping the Reserve (IUCN Consultation, 2020a). There are also indications that concession holders, including the so-called “community forests” are subsequently rented-out to logging companies, and that roundwood export therefore has increased many times in recent years and is expected to rise further. Due to the difficulty to control of these remote areas, regulations on sustainable selective harvesting are not always followed and clear-cutting have been undertaken (IUCN Consultation, 2020b).
Increased accessibility might stimulate poaching, noise disturbance on wildlife, illegal logging of high value species within the CSNR (IUCN Consultation, 2017). The western border shows clear signs of encroachment of logging activities. Logging activities have also increased significantly close to the eastern border (Upper-Saramacca River region) since the area became accessible by road in 2018 (IUCN Consultation, 2020a).
The lack of on-site management capacity, decreased number of active wildlife guards and the exclusion of local Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in management of the World Heritage site, might contribute to a greater risk of encroachment of logging activities (FPP, 2008; Meddens, 2011; MacKay, 2014; IUCN Consultation, 2020b).

The local communities are increasingly engaging in commercial logging. Even though they are located outside the site, their traditional lifestyle extends deep within it. Their engagement in commercial logging is evident from the internal conflicts over the distribution of benefits (State Party of Suriname, 2023).

There are border disputes with logging concessions in the North West and North east of the Central Suriname Nature Reserve due to human error in projecting the borders (State Party of Suriname, 2023).
Air-borne Pollutants
(Air Pollution)
Low Threat
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
Outside site
Elevated mercury levels were detected in the piranha (Serrasalmus rhombeus) and the peacock cichlid (Cichla ocellaris) from the Central Suriname Nature Reserve (Mol et al., 2001). Atmospheric transport of mercury from the small-scale goldmining activities north-east of the CSNR causes elevated levels of mercury concentrations in fish tissue and bottom sediments (Ouboter, 2015).

According to Ouboter et al. (2012) it is critical to stop the inflow of atmospheric mercury to protect the Central Suriname Nature Reserve as a pristine wilderness area. Mercury is extremely poisonous for mammals and birds.
Hunting, Collecting & Controlling Terrestrial Animals, Fishing, Harvesting & Controlling Aquatic Species
(Illegal hunting/ poaching )
Other targeted species names
Jaguar (Panthera onca), Guianan cock-of-the-rock (Rupicola rupicola), Ocelot (Leopardus pardalis)
Data Deficient
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
Poaching is a current threat within the World Heritage site, however, the extent of the threat is unknown. As the authorities have very limited means of surveillance and transport into the CSNR is expensive, poaching is a threat as rangers rarely carry out patrols and control is largely left to one road control point where most check-ups are focused on logging and not on (illegal) hunting and poaching (IUCN Consultation, 2020).

Reports indicate poaching in the Kaiser Mountains, with specific allegations involving employees of the helicopter company Hi-jet on Table Mountain (Tafelberg) (BirdLife International, 2025).

Jaguars (Panthera onca) face severe threats from poaching in Central Suriname Nature Reserve. Their poaching for trafficking in the north of the Reserve has already been reported (Romo, 2021). This illegal activity is driven by international demand for jaguar parts, such as teeth, skins, and a paste made from boiled carcasses, used in traditional Chinese medicine and sold as luxury items. Increased accessibility due to mining and logging near the reserve's borders has facilitated poaching. Although jaguars are legally protected in Suriname, the reserve's remoteness and limited enforcement efforts enable illegal hunting to continue unchecked. Jaguar poaching in the Central Suriname Nature Reserve is part of a larger, more complex issue affecting multiple locations in Suriname and beyond. This problem extends beyond opportunistic hunting, as revealed by the investigation Operation Jaguar. The findings highlight connections between the illegal trafficking of jaguar parts and organized crime such as human trafficking, drug trafficking, money laundering, and illegal mining (Earth League International, 2023).

Jaguars are not the only species illegally hunted in the Central Suriname Nature Reserve; other animals, such as ocelots, are also targeted (Romo, 2021).

The Guianan cock-of-the-rock (Rupicola rupicola), a key species within the Central Suriname Nature Reserve (CSNR), faces threats from illegal extraction. The State Party of Suriname's 2023 report to UNESCO raises concerns about this issue, emphasizing the need for strengthened conservation efforts to protect the species within the reserve (State Party of Suriname, 2023).

Nearby Indigenous and Tribal Peoples' communities have reported increasing presence of legal and illegal sports hunters and fishers, who pass their community along the main road and river in an increased frequency (IUCN Consultation, 2025). The communities also report that game and fish is left to rot in the forest when the hunters and fishers cannot carry away as much as they shoot.
Water-borne & other effluent Pollution, Garbage & Solid Waste
(Outboard motors and solid waste)
Low Threat
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
Outside site
The use of outboard motors on rivers for transportation presents minor pollution risks. While solid waste pollution has been an issue, it appears to have declined, likely due in part to reduced visitation during the COVID-19 pandemic (State Party of Suriname, 2023).
Gathering, Harvesting & Controlling Terrestrial Plants & Fungi
(Extraction of endemic cactus species)
High Threat
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
The State Party of Suriname (2023) clearly stated that a cactus species is nearly extinct at the top of Voltzberg, emphasizing this as an attribute of Outstanding Universal Value that is seriously compromised. BirdLife International (2025) also noted the extraction of endemic cactus species from Voltzberg by tourists.
Recreational Activities
(Illegal air access)
High Threat
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
The State Party of Suriname (2023) stated that illegal air access to Tafelberg, without the knowledge of management, compromised the conservation of the site.
High Threat
Potential threats from climate change are low at the moment, but the threat of activities outside the Reserve; including timber concessions, mining, potential hydroelectric dam construction, and proposed plans for large-scale agricultural development are increasing rapidly and encroaching on the site. There is a clear sign of encroachment of logging activities from the northwestern and northeastern borders of the CSNR, which may increase the potential threat of future logging activities. Commercial and subsistence wild plant collection, fishing and collection of other aquatic resources that occur inside and outside the site are also potential threats for its conservation.
Mining & Quarrying, Renewable Energy
(Mining and potential construction of a hydroelectric dam)
High Threat
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
Outside site
Several large-scale mining concessions exist or are being awarded close to the boundaries of the designated site, gold to the north and bauxite to the west. The landscape and watershed have deteriorated due to illegal gold mining, highlighting the need for a monitoring plan and patrols near the borders to search for and address such activities, particularly with possible illegal mining occurring along the eastern border (State Party of Suriname, 2023).

The Surinamese government’s creation of the "Presidential Commission West-Suriname Bakhuis Development" in mid-2023 raised concerns about its environmental and cultural impact on the Central Suriname Nature Reserve. The commission actively gathered data on various projects, including international bauxite investments in the Bakhuis Mountains, hydroelectric capacity, and infrastructure, aiming to attract potential investors (Local Content Suriname, 2023a). In November 2024, the State Party formally signed a Memorandum of Understanding with the multinational company Chinalco, for the extensive mining of, among others, bauxite and the construction of port facilities (Republic of Suriname, 2024).
The State Party of Suriname has cautioned that mining and the construction of a hydroelectric dam in the Bakhuis Mountains could threaten the Outstanding Universal Value of the Central Suriname Nature Reserve (State Party of Suriname, 2023).

Thorough assessment and strategic planning are crucial to ensuring that future development aligns with World Heritage standards while minimizing potential harm. Establishing a buffer zone is essential to balancing economic growth with the conservation of sensitive areas surrounding the site.

Changes in Temperature Regimes
(Climate change )
Data Deficient
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
Temperatures are expected to rise slowly (1.5 ºC by 2090) and rainfall to decrease even more slowly (- 0.7 in. by 2090). Since the Reserve has significant altitudinal differences, species are expected to be able to adapt (McSweeney, n.d.). Temperature and other environmental factors may be influenced by climate change, but they are currently not being monitored (State Party of Suriname, 2023).
Gathering, Harvesting & Controlling Terrestrial Plants & Fungi
(Commercial and subsistence wild plant collection)
Data Deficient
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
Outside site
The accessibility created by logging concessions near the site’s borders poses a potential threat to wild plant populations. Local communities collect palm species, which are commonly used in housing construction. However, due to the area's remoteness, there is currently a lack of oversight on this issue (State Party of Suriname, 2023).
Fishing, Harvesting & Controlling Aquatic Species
(Fishing and collection of other aquatic resources)
Data Deficient
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
Outside site
The State Party of Suriname (2023) mentioned the need to develop and implement a plan regarding fishing, and the collection of other aquatic resources. BirdLife International (2025) warned that legal fishing by local Maroons is likely occurring on a scale that is too large.
Annual & Perennial Non-Timber Crops
(Potential large-scale agricultural development )
Very High Threat
Outside site
Proposed plans for large-scale agricultural development in Suriname have faced strong opposition from Indigenous communities, conservation organizations, and some members of parliament. Their concerns focus on the potential deforestation of the Amazon and the impact on ancestral territories. Several protected areas, including the Central Suriname Nature Reserve, are situated near the areas reportedly targeted for development (Radwin, 2024; Avaaz, 2024).
Involvement of stakeholders and rightsholders, including indigenous peoples and local communities, in decision-making processes
Serious Concern
Designation of the Reserve is viewed in general, by both national institutions and local communities in the interior, as very positive. However, a consultation and advisory body, which was supposed to be established and include representatives of the most relevant institutions, including the neighbouring tribal communities, never was put into effect; nor is there evidence of projects being undertaken, as was originally planned, to support development of conservation compatible livelihoods as part of a process to engage local people around the Reserve. A draft of a business management model for the CSNR was developed but the plan has not yet been implemented (UNDP, 2012; Vision, 2012; Meddens, 2011; IUCN Consultation, 2014). Indigenous and Tribal Peoples (ITP) with ancestral rights in the area were not involved in decision-making about the establishment of the CSNR. A process was initially established to develop a management plan that did involve some indigenous and tribal representatives, however, their input was later removed and was not reflected in the final plan (MacKay, 2014). ITP organisations have expressed great concern about nature conservation activities not least because Suriname has no legislation to recognize and guarantee their ownership and other rights to traditional lands and territories (MacKay, 2014). Surinamese law does also not cover co-management with ITPs of protected areas. The loss of traditional management due to expropriation, a lack of wildlife guards and the absence of a consensual management plan for ecosystem and species management (MacKay, 2014), might pose a threat to achieving nature conservation objectives and a greater risk of encroachment of logging and mining activities (FPP, 2008; Meddens, 2011; IUCN Consultation, 2020b).
Legal framework
Serious Concern
The Reserve was established by State Resolution, but there is little actual law enforcement capacity. Initiatives to revise the current nature protection laws are taking place. The updated laws should make alternative management systems such as public-private partnerships and co-management with local communities possible within nature reserves (IUCN Consultation, 2017). By 2023, the State Party of Suriname considered that an adequate legal framework exists, but there were some deficiencies in implementation which undermine the maintenance of the Outstanding Universal Value including conditions of Authenticity and/or Integrity of the property (State Party of Suriname, 2023).

The establishment of the Central Suriname Nature Reserve (CSNR) significantly impacted Indigenous and Maroon communities. Suriname's legal framework lacks provisions for involving Indigenous and Maroon peoples in the management and planning of protected areas. There is limited recognition of traditional rights, but only under conditions that do not interfere with the state's objectives for the reserves. Regarding land claims, Suriname's constitution designates the state as the owner of almost all land and resources. This legal stance often negates Indigenous and Maroon customary rights, especially when activities are classified as being in the "national interest." These communities assert ownership based on customary rights, a stance supported by various international conventions and treaties that Suriname has ratified, including the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which emphasizes the right to self-determination, as well as by judgments of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights in the Saramaka (Inter-American Court of Human Rights, 2007) and Kalina and Lokono case (Inter-American Court of Human Rights, 2015). In summary, the absence of a legal framework in Suriname to involve Indigenous and Maroon communities in the management of protected areas, coupled with the lack of recognition of their land rights, has led to ongoing struggles for these communities to maintain their traditional territories and way of life (Forest Peoples, 2008; MacKay & Pané, 2010; Apapoe, 2020).
Governance arrangements
Serious Concern
According to the 2023 Periodic Report (State Party of Suriname, 2023), the site's governance and management system operate through a State Foundation and governance mechanisms that uphold and respect traditional practices, knowledge, and uses of the property. However, Indigenous and Tribal Peoples (ITP) with ancestral rights in the area were not involved in decision-making about the establishment of the CSNR. A process was initially established to develop a management plan that did involve some indigenous and tribal representatives. However, their input was later removed and was not reflected in the final plan (MacKay, 2014). The absence of a legal framework in Suriname to involve Indigenous and Maroon communities in the management of protected areas, coupled with the lack of recognition of their land rights, has led to ongoing struggles for these communities to maintain their traditional territories and way of life (Forest Peoples, 2008; MacKay & Pané, 2010; Apapoe, 2020).
Integration into local, regional and national planning systems (including sea/landscape connectivity)
Some Concern
The Reserve was originally established as an alternative to giving the forests in concession to Asian timber companies, and as such was part of a conscious decision by the Suriname government at the highest levels to change its development model (Meddens, 2011). CSNR is among the protected areas positioned as key in the current planning for development of Suriname (RoS, 2015). However, proposed plans for large-scale agricultural development in Suriname, bauxite investments and construction of a hydroelectric dam in the Bakhuis Mountains to the West of the Reserve could negatively affect the site (State Party of Suriname, 2023; Radwin, 2024).
Boundaries
Serious Concern
There are major mistakes in the coordinates describing the geographical location of the Reserve, and these have not been resolved since creation of the Reserve in 1998 (Middens, 2012). The boundaries have not been demarcated on the ground (WDPA, 2011). In 2023, the State Party of Suriname reported in its periodic report that the boundaries of the Central Suriname Nature Reserve (CSNR) are recognized by both the management authority and local communities or landowners and are adequate to maintain its Outstanding Universal Value. However, the Reserve was still lacking a buffer zone, which is considered necessary for providing additional protection. Discrepancies in the boundaries, reportedly caused by human errors in projecting the borders, have led to disputes with logging concessions in the northwest and northeast of the reserve. To address these discrepancies in the boundaries, in recent years the Ministry of Land Policy and Forest Management (GBB), in collaboration with the Management Institution for Land Registration and Land Information System (MI-GLIS), has reviewed and corrected the borders based on the original state order establishing the CSNR. An updated map, reflecting the corrected borders, was supposed to be finalized and approved by the government within one year (State Party of Suriname, 2023).
Overlapping international designations
Data Deficient
N/A
Implementation of World Heritage Committee decisions and recommendations
Data Deficient
No Committee decisions have been taken since inscription of the World Heritage site.
Climate action
Some Concern
No use has been made of the World Heritage Policy for Climate Change and there is not a system in place to measure and monitor the effects of climate change on the OUV of the site (State Party of Suriname, 2023).
Management plan and overall management system
Some Concern
The Head of the Forest Management Service (LBB) is responsible for the Reserve management. The Nature Conservation Division (NCD) of LBB directs the actual management, supported by the Suriname Foundation for Nature Preservation (STINASU). NCD supervises Reserve management, based on the Management Plan developed in 2004 (Vision, 2012). A Project Implementation Unit (PIU) was established in 2009 to support the NCD with implementation of the management plan. By the end of 2010 only 2 employees were still working at the PIU; the others left because of the lack of progress. Project proposals, plans and budgets are still under review by the Forest Service (Middens, 2012). The PIU is currently not functioning (IUCN Consultation, 2017).
Law enforcement
Data Deficient
There seems to be a general lack of on-site management capacity and active wildlife guards, however there is a lack of updated information from the site-level to provide an accurate assessment.
Sustainable finance
Serious Concern
The Suriname Conservation Fund (SCF) was established in 1999 with the support of Conservation International. Support by the GEF has helped build the Fund’s capital to more than USD18 million to support and aid the long-term development and conservation goals of Suriname, especially management of the Reserve, which is the largest conservation unit in the country (Vision, 2012; Meddens, 2011). However, though funding is available, projects to support management of the Reserve have never been approved or implemented (UNDP, 2012). The State Party of Suriname reported in 2023, that the available budget for the Central Suriname Nature Reserve was inadequate to meet basic management needs, posing a significant challenge to the reserve's capacity for effective management. The funding sources are insecure, and budget constraints have hindered the implementation of both the management and annual plans. Additionally, since funding decisions are made at higher levels of government, it is challenging to determine the exact percentage of finances allocated to the reserve. Financial resources were expected to be available from GEF 7 (State Party of Suriname, 2023).
Staff capacity, training and development
Some Concern
UNDP approved a project to strengthen the SCF to enable it to better support conservation management, research, awareness, advocacy, and ecotourism activities. At the same time, the government agencies responsible for protected area management were to be strengthened through the provision of financial and technical capacity building support under this project. However, evaluation of the project revealed a lack of effective implementation because of bureaucratic issues (UNDP Suriname, 2012). There has also been little effort to implement and enforce the management plan and the number of wildlife guards has even decreased since the CSNR was established (MacKay, 2014). The current human resources are insufficient to meet management needs. Additionally, there is no site-based capacity-building plan or program in place. Management is carried out by external staff, and their skills are not transferred to local personnel. Support is required to address and improve issues related to human resources (State Party of Suriname, 2023).

To strengthen conservation efforts, the recruitment and training of protected area staff, including park rangers, is underway. The Suriname Forest Service, in collaboration with JSOOC (Jan Starke Opleiding & Ontspanningscentrum), has already begun recruiting 35 individuals for this training (State Party of Suriname, 2023).
Education and interpretation programmes
Some Concern
There is a need to develop a national awareness program for specific audiences and users. Currently, there is no education or awareness initiative targeted at children or youth, despite the recognition of the importance of such programs (State Party of Suriname, 2023).
Tourism and visitation management
Some Concern
Though there has been some improvement in visitor facilities, visitation remains at low levels (Vision, 2012; Meddens, 2012). A tourism master plan was developed for CSNR, however, little progress has been achieved in its implementation. Management of tourism activities is only allowed by the Nature Conservation Division (LBB) and STINASU (semi-government foundation) has the right to organize tourism activities in nature reserves (IUCN Consultation, 2017). Local indigenous and tribal peoples (ITP communities) have derived little in terms of tourism benefits from the CSNR. Despite their traditional knowledge and expertise, they are only eligible for the lowest rungs of employment and are denied training opportunities because they do not “hold sufficient educational qualifications” (MacKay, 2014).

In 2023 the State Party of Suriname reported that a strategy exists to manage visitors, tourism activities, and their impacts on the World Heritage property; however, its implementation has notable deficiencies. While some efforts are made to regulate visitor use, cooperation between those managing the World Heritage property and the tourism industry remains limited. This lack of collaboration affects the effective presentation and appreciation of the site's Outstanding Universal Value (OUV), which is neither adequately interpreted nor presented. Additionally, no fees are currently collected from visitors. Despite these challenges, there are locally driven sustainable tourism initiatives, such as catch-and-release fishing, which benefit local communities. For instance, local guides and boat transportation services are provided by community members, ensuring tourism contributes to their livelihoods. However, the development of a comprehensive visitor management plan and the introduction of an entrance fee are necessary to address these gaps. To support these efforts, the Suriname Forest Service and UNESCO's National Commission organized a visit by UNESCO consultants in July 2022. This visit aimed to assist in creating a tourism management plan for the Central Suriname Nature Reserve (CSNR) (State Party of Suriname, 2023). Also in 2022, a two-day workshop on "Sustainable Tourism Strategy for World Heritage Properties in Suriname" brought together various stakeholders, including institutions, site managers, and government representatives. The goal was to identify challenges and opportunities for developing sustainable tourism at UNESCO-designated sites in Suriname (WHC-UNESCO, 2022).

Sustainable use
Some Concern
Neighboring Maroon and Indigenous communities are allowed to continue their traditional subsistence activities, such as hunting, fishing and gathering within the reserve. However, there is evidence that some hunting and fishing are being carried out for commercial purposes along the Coppename River, a key economic hub in Witagron. As the population grows, this issue becomes more pressing (Conservation International Suriname, 2003). Sports fishers and hunters coming from "the city" are increasingly sighted by the nearby communities (IUCN Consultation, 2025).

Establishing clear agreements with the Kwinti and other communities that claim traditional rights is essential to preserving the pristine conditions that enhance the long-term tourism, research, and conservation value of the CSNR (Conservation International, 2003).
Monitoring
Serious Concern
In 2004, the international monitoring and assessment program initiated by CI Washington (TEAM research project), became active in Suriname and in 2006 a research station was built in the Raleighvallen area. The TEAM program has been collecting data on climate, vegetation growth and terrestrial vertebrates since 2008, however, ended in 2017. Data collected from the program has been transferred to Wildlife Insights data (Wildlife Insights, 2020). However, there is no Reserve monitoring program (UNDP, 2012; Meddenz, 2011). A monitoring program for the Reserve was developed along with the CSNR management plan. However, the monitoring program has not been implemented and financing for research was provided to implement the global TEAM program - The Ecosystem Assessment and Monitoring Program (IUCN Consultation, 2014). No monitoring is currently being conducted within the World Heritage property or its buffer zone, despite the recognized need for such activities. While sufficient information exists to define key indicators for monitoring the property's values, these indicators have not yet been established. Some low-impact research and monitoring activities, such as the use of camera traps, are in place, but they are limited in scope. Developing and implementing a comprehensive monitoring plan is essential to address these gaps and ensure effective management of the site (State Party of Suriname, 2023).
Research
Some Concern
There is no Reserve research program operating under the auspices of the management authority. However, research has been undertaken in the Reserve for many years, mainly by foreign academic institutions, although studies on population ecology of margays and ocelots as well as lowland tapirs have also been carried out by students for the Anton de Kom University of Suriname. Studies have generally focused on geology, geography, tropical rainforest ecology and forest fruits, and zoological studies including work on monkeys, nightjars and larger animals such as caimans and primates (WDPA, 2011). Recent research on prey composition of Harpy eagles has been published (Miranda, 2020). The Raleighvallen Area, where the Reserve Headquarters are located, has been utilized for scientific studies for many years. Conservation International constructed a research station at the base of Voltzberg Dome and the University of Florida operates a primate research station near Raleighvallen (ISESCO, 2012; WDPA, 2011). The Wildlife Insights project will facilitate more widespread analysis of camera trapping data collected within the Reserve in the future (Wildlife Insights, 2020).

While knowledge about the values and attributes of the World Heritage property is sufficient for most key areas, certain gaps remain. Currently, no research is being conducted within the property, despite the recognized need. Furthermore, previous research findings have not been shared at any level, limiting their impact on conservation and management efforts. A conservation action plan needs to be developed, along with regular biodiversity assessments and the application of the Management Effectiveness Tracking Tool (METT) for the Central Suriname Nature Reserve (CSNR). However, external funding will be required to implement these initiatives effectively. Notably, past research on primates contributed to the production of a book titled The Fruits of Suriname, which was later followed by The Fruits of the Guianas. These works highlight the region's rich biodiversity and underscore the importance of continued research and knowledge sharing (State Party of Suriname, 2023).
Effectiveness of management system and governance in addressing threats outside the site
Serious Concern
There are currently no management activities in place to address external threats to the Reserve. Urgent action is needed to implement effective management strategies to mitigate these threats.
Effectiveness of management system and governance in addressing threats inside the site
Serious Concern
Despite considerable effort and investment in the development of the management plan, there is no on-site management capacity. In the Headquarters Area, tourist facilities have been upgraded, but the beginnings of a visitors center stands unfinished. Tourist numbers have not increased as expected and employee homes are in deplorable condition. Although more research buildings were built and a local road improved, the number of active wildlife guards, research activities, and tourist numbers have actually decreased since establishment of the Reserve in 1998 (UNDP, 2012; Meddens, 2011). In June 2017, the research field station at the Voltzberg was rebuilt with the necessary facilities to function as a field camp for tourists and researchers. Overall, the site's management capacity is low, with minimal coordination among the various administrative bodies responsible. While an annual work/action plan exists, only a few of its activities are being implemented (State Party of Suriname, 2023).
Despite considerable effort and investment in the development of the management plan in 2003, there is very little on-the-ground capacity for management of the Reserve. A draft of a business management model for the CSNR was developed but the plan has not yet been implemented. The Suriname Conservation Fund (SCF) was established in 1999 with the support of Conservation International. The establishment of the Central Suriname Nature Reserve significantly impacted Indigenous and Maroon communities. The absence of a legal framework in Suriname to involve Indigenous and Maroon communities in the management of protected areas, coupled with the lack of recognition of their land rights, has led to ongoing struggles for these communities to maintain their traditional territories and way of life. The current human resources are insufficient to meet management needs. Additionally, there is no site-based capacity-building plan or program in place. Management is carried out by external staff, and their skills are not transferred to local personnel. Support is required to address and improve issues related to human resources, however funding sources are insecure, and budget constraints have hindered the implementation of both the management and annual plans. Additionally, since funding decisions are made at higher levels of government, it is challenging to determine the exact percentage of finances allocated to the reserve from national and international sources.
Good practice examples
The State Party of Suriname has highlighted the research on primates conducted at the site as an example of good practice, which contributed to the creation of the book The Fruits of Suriname. This work was later followed by The Fruits of the Guianas (State Party of Suriname, 2023).

Ecological processes and variety of ecosystems

Good
Trend
Stable
Given the size and inaccessibility of the Reserve, the lack of human communities within its boundaries, and the containment of the Reserve inside its own watershed, ecological processes continue (Meddens, 2011; WCMC, 2012), however climate change may pose a significant threat in the future.

High diversity of plant life, including endemic and threatened species

Low Concern
Trend
Deteriorating
Overall, given the size and inaccessibility of the Reserve, the lack of human communities within its boundaries, the containment of the Reserve inside its own watershed, and the lack of significant threats, the Reserve is in an excellent state of conservation and the trend is stable (Meddens, 2011; WCMC, 2012). However, the extraction of some species is cause of concern. A cactus species is almost extinct on the top of Voltzberg (State Party of Suriname, 2023).

Presence of unique habitat of a flagship species

High Concern
Trend
Deteriorating
There is concern about the illegal extraction of the Guianan cock-of-the-rock (Rupicola rupicola) from the reserve, this species is a key value for the Central Suriname Nature Reserve (State Party of Suriname, 2023).

High diversity of terrestrial mammals, including threatened mammal species

High Concern
Trend
Deteriorating
Jaguars face severe threats from poaching in Central Suriname Nature Reserve. Their poaching for trafficking in the north of the Reserve has already been reported (Romo, 2021). This illegal activity is driven by international demand for jaguar parts, such as teeth, skins, and a paste made from boiled carcasses, used in traditional Chinese medicine and sold as luxury items. Increased accessibility due to mining and logging near the reserve’s borders has facilitated poaching. Although jaguars are legally protected in Suriname, the reserve’s remoteness and limited enforcement efforts enable illegal hunting to continue unchecked. Jaguar poaching in the Central Suriname Nature Reserve is part of a larger, more complex issue affecting multiple locations in Suriname and beyond. This problem extends beyond opportunistic hunting, as revealed by the investigation Operation Jaguar. The findings highlight connections between the illegal trafficking of jaguar parts and organized crimes such as human trafficking, drug trafficking, money laundering, and illegal mining (Earth League International, 2023).

Jaguars are not the only species illegally hunted in the Central Suriname Nature Reserve; other animals, such as ocelots, are also targeted (Romo, 2021).
Assessment of the current state and trend of World Heritage values
Low Concern
Deteriorating
Overall, the status of the World Heritage values of the Central Suriname Nature Reserve remain of low concern. This is largely due to the size and inaccessibility of the Reserve, the containment of the Reserve inside its own watershed, and the lack of significant threats. However, encroachment from logging and mining operations, poaching of key species, and the extraction of target plants are growing concerns that require urgent attention.

Additional information

Importance for research
The size and intactness of the site makes it an extremely important resource for the generation of knowledge that requires research in pristine habitats.
Outdoor recreation and tourism
Tourism to the site is limited, but has considerable potential for expansions.
Carbon sequestration
With a total of 1.6 million hectares of forest, and an estimate of 212.21 MgC/ha (SBB et al., 2017), CSNR stores a large amount of carbon (approx. 339 million MgC).
Conservation and knowledge generation are superlative values for the Central Suriname Nature Reserve at the international level, while the potential for development of tourism is a benefit of the Reserve valued at the national level.

References

№References
1
Ahumada, Jorge A.; Silva, Carlos E. F.; Gajapersad, Krisna; Hallam, Chris; Hurtado, Johanna; Martin, Emanuel; McWilliam, Alex; Mugerwa, Badru; O'Brien, Tim; Rovero, Francesco; Sheil, Douglas; Spironello, Wilson R.; Winarni, Nurul; Andelman, Sandy J. 2011. Community structure and diversity of tropical forest mammals: data from a global camera trap network, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 20112011-09-27 00:00:002703-27113661578. http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/366/1578/2703
2
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4
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5
Conservation International Suriname (2003). Final Draft Management Plan Central Suriname Nature Reserve (CSNR). 70 pp.
6
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7
Ebels, E.B. & Brinkhuizen, Dušan & Wantia, Roland. (2014). On display: Guianan Cock-of-the-rock and Andean Cock-of-the-rock. Dutch Birding. 36. 256-263
8
Forest Peoples (2008). Nature reserves within the indigenous territory of the Kaliña and Lokono peoples of Lower Marowijne: A review of Suriname's implementation of the CBD Programme of Work on Protected Area. [online] Available at: https://www.forestpeoples.org/en/topics/rights-land-natural…. [Accessed 15 January 2025].
9
ISESCO, 2012. Central Suriname Nature Reserve (Suriname). Islamic – World Science Net. http://www.icpsr.org.ma/?Page=showInstitute&InstituteID=CSN…
10
IUCN (2000). World Heritage Nomination – IUCN Technical Evaluation, Central Suriname Nature Reserve ( Suriname). In: IUCN World Heritage Evaluations 2000, IUCN Evaluations of nominations of natural and mixed properties to the World Heritage List. [online] Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, pp.77-81. https://whc.unesco.org/document/151540 [Accessed November 2020].
11
IUCN 2017. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2017-2. . Downloaded on 23 October 2017
12
IUCN Consultation. (2020a). IUCN Confidential Consultation- Central Suriname Nature Reserve, Suriname.
13
IUCN Consultation. (2020b). IUCN Confidential Consultation- Central Suriname Nature Reserve, Suriname.
14
Localcontentsuriname (2023a). Suriname sets stage for international investment in Bauxite Reserves. [online] Available at: https://localcontentsuriname.com/en/nieuwsbericht/suriname-…. [Accessed 25 January 2025].
15
Localcontentsuriname (2023b). Suriname invites investors for West-Suriname Bauxite Project. [online] Available at: https://localcontentsuriname.com/en/nieuwsbericht/suriname-…. [Accessed 25 January 2025].
16
MacKay & Pané (2010). 50 years of Disrespect: Protected Areas in Suriname. [online] Cultural Survival. Available at: https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-surv…. [Accessed 25 January 2025].
17
MacKay, F. (2014). ‘We Heard the News from the Pres’s: the Central Suriname Nature Reserve and its impacts on the rights of Indigenous and Tribal Peoples. In: Disko, S. and Tugendhat, H. eds. World Heritage Sites and Indigenous Peoples' Rights. (Vol. 551). Copenhagen: IWGIA. Documen, (129), pp.515-526. https://www.iwgia.org/images/documents/popular-publications…
18
McSweeney, C., et al. (n.d.). UNDP Climate Change Country Profiles: Suriname. http://www.geog.ox.ac.uk/research/climate/projects/undp-cp/…
19
Meddens, L. (2011). Local Government and Global NGO in a struggle to protect the jungle: A case study of ‘Conservation International’ and the Central Suriname Nature Reserve. Masters Thesis. Wageningen University and Research Centre (WUR) http://www.enp.wur.nl/NR/rdonlyres/76E37461-F1BF-4D5E-8AE2-…
20
Miranda, E. B. (2018). Prey composition of harpy eagles (Harpia harpyja) in Raleighvallen, Suriname. Tropical Conservation Science, 11. DOI: 10.1177/1940082918800789.
21
Mol, J. H., Ramlal, J. S., Lietar, C., & Verloo, M. (2001). Mercury contamination in freshwater, estuarine, and marine fishes in relation to small-scale gold mining in Suriname, South America. Environmental Research, 86(2), 183-197.
22
Ouboter P.E., 2015. Review of mercury pollution in Suriname. Academic Journal of Suriname 2015, 6, 531-543.
23
Ouboter, P. E., Landburg, G. A., Quik, J. H., Mol, J. H., & van der Lugt, F. (2012). Mercury levels in pristine and gold mining impacted aquatic ecosystems of Suriname, South America. Ambio, 41, 873-882.
24
Radwin, Maxwell (2024). Outcry over deforestation as Suriname’s agriculture plans come to light. Mongabay. [online] Available at: https://news.mongabay.com/2024/01/outcry-over-deforestation…. [Accessed 20 January 2025].
25
Republic of Suriname (2024). Ondertekening MoU met Chinalco. Ministerie van Financiën en Planning. Republiek Suriname. Available at: https://gov.sr/ondertekening-mou-met-chinalco/
26
Romo, V. (2021). Jaguars in Suriname’s protected parks remain vulnerable to poaching. Mongabay. [online] Available at: https://news.mongabay.com/2021/02/jaguars-in-surinames-prot…. [Accessed 20 January 2025].
27
SBB; CELOS; CATIE; NZCS. 2017. State-of-the-art study: Best estimates for emission factors and carbon stocks for Suriname. SBB. Paramaribo, Suriname. http://sbbsur.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Technischrappo…
28
State Party of Suriname (2023). Periodic Report Third Cycle Section II: Central Suriname Nature Reserve. [online] Paris, France: UNESCO World Heritage Centre, pp. 1-47. Available at: https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1017/documents/. [Accessed 20 January 2025].
29
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30
Vision for the CSNR, 2012. http://www.centraalsuriname.sr.org/vision.htm
31
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32
Wildlife Insights. (2020). Wildlife Insights [online] Available at: https://www.wildlifeinsights.org/ (Accessed 15 July 2020).  

Indigenous Heritage values

The Central Suriname Nature Reserve comprises 1.6 million ha of primary tropical forest of west-central Suriname. It protects the upper watershed of the Coppename River and the headwaters of the Lucie, Oost, Zuid, Saramaccz, and Gran Rio rivers and covers a range of topography and ecosystems of notable conservation value due to its pristine state. Its montane and lowland forests contain a high diversity of plant life with more than 5,000 vascular plant species collected to date. The Reserve's animals are typical of the region and include the jaguar, giant armadillo, giant river otter, tapir, sloths, eight species of primates and 400 bird species such as harpy eagle, Guiana cock-of-the-rock, and scarlet macaw. © UNESCO

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