Darién National Park

A Park Management Committee, along with several community outreach projects, and environmental education initiatives have been used to develop working relationships with some local stakeholders and rights-holders. In other regions of the Park, the absence of the park management is noteworthy (IUCN Consultation, 2025). The common dilemma between formal conservation objectives and local livelihoods remains largely unresolved, namely resultant from the Park and World Heritage site having been established on top of lands under customary stewardship by Indigenous Peoples and local communities well before designation. Current mechanisms to enable Indigenous Peoples and local communities to participate in decision-making regarding park management are still in their infancy (UNEP-WCMC, 2011; ANAM et al., 2008, 2007, 2006). In effect, the 2023 Periodic Report from park authorities acknowledges that there is still only "some participation" of Indigenous Peoples and local communities in management decisions to maintain the values of the Park and World Heritage site (State Party of Panama, 2023). After 45 years since the Park's declaration, this is of utmost concern.
The partial update for the operation of the Darién National Park management plan (ANAM, 2007) proposed the establishment of four management programs, one of them: "Community management and environmental education", which remains in effect. This program aims at improving social participation, capacity building, stakeholders' synergies and decision making. However despite social-environment conflicts in the area, there is no updated information on the implementation of this program. The Darién Biosphere Reserve (where the Darién National Park is included) has a Darién National Park Supporting Network with the formal participation of governmental institutions, civil society organizations and others. It is unclear if this governance platform has worked but it is not specific to the World Heritage site. Lastly, the resolution from the Ministry of Environment (Ministerio de Ambiente, 2019), which allows for the recognition of collective lands under Indigenous stewardship is yet to be fully operationalized, which could support in improving the involvement of local stakeholders in park affairs.

The National Park was established by Executive Decree in 1980. International recognition as a World Heritage property (1981) and the slightly larger Biosphere Reserve (1983) add important layers of protection and visibility. A historical Presidential Decree to eliminate mineral extraction from the National Park was issued several decades ago as reported by Martin et al. (2003). Enacted in 2023, Law 407 prohibits all concessions related to the exploration, extraction, transportation, and processing of metallic minerals throughout Panama territory. However, although Martin et al. (2003) reported the legal framework as such to be excellent, it is important to recognize that placing multiple layers of management categories, without consultation, on top of lands under the stewardship of Indigenous People and other local communities is suboptimal. Recognizing this problem, the Ministry of Environment opened an opportunity in 2019, through a resolution (Ministerio de Ambiente, 2019), for Indigenous communities to have their collective land tenure formally recognized within protected areas. The implementation of this resolution remains unclear but warrants attention and follow up given strong interest from Indigenous communities residing within the Park's boundaries. Indeed, while across the world Indigenous conservation is gaining momentum (Mansuy et al., 2023), MiAmbiente and the Park are currently perceived by many Indigenous residents as the most serious threat to their rights, a situation that prevents the implementation of joined management.

Besides the formal designation of the park as a World Heritage site, and the existence of management and operationalization plans, which are clearly defined, there is a paucity of information regarding the governance of the area. Based on the 2023 Periodic Report prepared by park authorities, the involvement of stakeholders and rightsholders in decision-making is limited, and implementation of the site's management plan falls under the purview of the park administration with no co-management arrangement with local communities residing within its boundaries (State Party of Panama, 2023). It is unclear if relevant, current and accessible information about natural values, threats, protected area use, and community issues is available to management, or if mechanisms are in place to effectively engage with Indigenous peoples and local communities, including addressing complaints, disputes and grievances. The existence of adaptive management systems is unknown.

The area is comparatively well integrated into provincial and national layers of planning, including the National Protected Area System (SINAP). The National Park boundaries partially coincide with an international border, which is why the National Park is also considered by other national strategic planning (UNEP-WCMC, 2011; ANAM et al., 2007). The World Heritage site extends to the border with Colombia where a portion of the borderlands contains Los Katíos National Park. Despite that, there is limited international collaboration on environmental governance in the region of both countries that is known as the Darién Gap. The biggest challenge remains in the integration of the Park's planning systems with the management and development goals of Indigenous, Afro-descendent, and other local communities that reside within its boundaries. Park co-management, which allows for collective land tenure recognition within protected areas, offers opportunities for collaborative environmental governance.

Due to the sheer size and remoteness of the World Heritage site, the boundary configuration is somewhat secondary compared to most other protected areas in the Central American subregion. While efforts to propose a formal Minor Boundary Modification (State Party of Panama, 2015, 2014) have not yet been met with approval, they indicate the governmental readiness to re-visit the boundaries more than 35 years after the creation of the National Park. However, given that ten years have passed since the tabling of that proposal, a review of the justification and current status of lands within that proposal is warranted. As noted in other sections, part of the Darién National Park boundary borders the much smaller Los Katíos National Park in Colombia (UNEP-WCMC, 2011; ANAM et al., 2007; TNC, n.d.). While the meeting of the two national parks and World Heritage sites results in mutual de facto buffering in that area, the World Heritage site is vulnerable to land use changes along the much longer boundary with Colombia, which does not coincide with protected areas in the neighbouring country. In the 2023 Periodic Report, park authorities highlighted that park boundaries are clearly marked. The same report states that the Park lack a buffer zone, which is also confirmed through existing maps (State Party of Panama, 2023). However, Windevoxhel et al. (2019) report activities carried out by Fondo Darien within the 5km buffer zone established by law. Clarification is required regarding the existence of a buffer zone .

The World Heritage site overlaps completely with the Darien Biosphere Reserve, which part of the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Programme. The Biosphere Reserve is 859,333 ha, making it 280,333 ha larger than the Park and World Heritage site (UNESCO, 2025). The current park manager is also responsible for managing the Biosphere Reserve, as stated in the 2023 Periodic Report produced by the park authorities (State Party of Panama, 2023). It is unclear if the current management of the park considers and aligns with the objectives and international requirements of the Biosphere Reserve; if funding sources for all three designations (i.e. National Park, World Heritage site, and Biosphere Reserve) are the same, separate, and adequate; if reporting and information sharing for all designations is coordinated and aligned; and if personnel are trained to meet the needs of all designations.

The proposals for Minor Boundary Modifications were twice referred (World Heritage Committee, 2015, 2014) following technical recommendations (IUCN, 2015, 2014). Both World Heritage Committee decisions encourage follow-up and enhanced cooperation with Colombia. The current status of this follow-up is not known. Given that ten years have passed, follow-up on both issues is highly encouraged but may require a revision of the justification for the boundary modification proposal in light of the extent and magnitude of existing threats and impacts, and the need for better engagement with Indigenous Peoples and local communities within the boundaries of the World Heritage site.

It is unclear whether the current management plan includes specific provisions to protect the site from the negative impacts of climate change, or if there is a system in place to monitor the impacts of climate change. According to the 2023 Periodic Report from park authorities, the Policy Document on the Impacts of Climate Change on World Heritage Sites has not been used (State Party of Panama, 2023). However, it is important to note that the site holds enormous value for mitigating climate change given its exceptional forests and carbon stocks as described by Mateo-Vega et al. (2017) and Kunz et al. (2022).

Building upon the first management plans in the late 1980s, management is guided by overarching management plans and Annual Operations Plans. However, the information is inadequate to guide management decisions regarding critical ecosystems, species, and cultural values. The Park has an administrative office in El Real de Santa María and four ranger stations. The rangers are provided with training and basic equipment for protection and the enforcement of regulations. Temporarily, security concerns compromised the effectiveness and even the presence of management (UNEP-WCMC, 2011; ANAM et al., 2008, 2007; Trab Nielsen, 2006). Once more, the border setting deserves to be mentioned, as it adds complexity to the management system, which is, in essence interrupted at the border from an ecosystem management perspective.
The Darién National Park management plan was approved in 2004. In 2009, the Environmental National Authority of Panama, adopted the partial update for its operation through resolution No. AG-0451-2009 (MiAMBIENTE 2014). Although in this resolution it is recommended the creation of a Committee for the implementation, no local representatives are included. Another resolution in 2013 (Resolucion AG-0859-2013) extended the 2009 management and operationalization plans, according to the 2023 Periodic Report from park authorities (State Party of Panama, 2023). In general, human and financial resources are insufficient to implement the management plan. An evaluation of management effectiveness carried out in 2007 suggests roughly 50% compliance against the management plan (ANAM et al., 2007). It is unclear whether other management effectiveness assessments have been conducted. Before 2007, an assessment of the progress of protected areas management (“Tracking tool”, World Bank and WWF) was implemented in Darién National Park (ANAM et al., 2007). These results were key to developing the Update for the Operation of the Darién National Park Management. There have also been three other relevant plans devised with a strong connection to the management of the park, including the Darien Site Conservation Plan (2010), the Strategic Plan for the Darien National Park Conservation Fund (2011), covering the period of 2012-2016, and its subsequent Action Plan, which covers the period of 2013-2016 (Windevoxhel et al., 2019). How these aligned to, leveraged, and complemented the Park's management plan is unclear. As of today, it appears that the Park is operating under the 2013 resolution, based on management and operationalization plans devised 18 years ago in 2007. It is also important to note that the implementation of the Ministry of Environment's resolution, which allows for the collective designation of land tenure in areas under long-term stewardship by Indigenous Peoples and local communities (Ministerio de Ambiente, 2019), remains unclear and warrants further attention.

Law enforcement is unable to adequately respond to uncontrolled and unsustainable resource use (UNEP-WCMC, 2011). Although anecdotal (i.e., based on the direct experience of the assessor and reviewers), it is important to note that traditional, culturally-appropriate activities carried out by Indigenous communities within the Park, such as hunting or harvesting of materials for home construction, have been subject to law enforcement. This remains a point of contention between Indigenous and local communities that have resided within the Park and World Heritage site's boundaries well before its designation, and who were never consulted. Although the Park administration claims in the 2023 Periodic Report that the relationship with Indigenous Peoples and local communities is "good", the absence of a culturally-appropriate co-management arrangement will continue to generate problems when law enforcement is practiced under current systems (State Party of Panama, 2023).

Darién National Park is a privileged high-profile protected area benefitting from a special Conservation Trust Fund established through a debt-for-nature swap between Panama and the United States of America and considerable additional external support (ANAM et al., 2008). While some have suggested that the level of finance may still be inadequate in light of the scale of both the Park and regional threats (UNEP-WCMC, 2011; Colectivo Darien, 2020), funding does not appear to constitute a main bottleneck. In a recent Periodic Report (State Party of Panama, 2023), the Park administration claimed that the budget is acceptable and stable in the medium and long term, but that it could be further improved. Other financial sources are Darién Fund (2015) (approx. 627,950 balboas), and “Biosphere Reserve of Darién National Park Project” (2017) (approx. 40 millions of balboas) (MiAmbiente, 2017). From 2013 to 2016 the Darién National Park was included into the Strategic Plan Implementation of the Darién Fund, strategic line #1: Contribution to the sustainable community development in Darién National Park and its buffer zone. This was, in theory, focused on the productive activities and livelihood improvement of the local people. Indigenous People living inside Darién National Park however have indicated that the Park has never brought them any financial support or benefit (Kunz et al., 2022).

Capacity-development was facilitated in the past via the Darien Fund (UNEP-WCMC, 2011; ANAM et al., 2007). ANAM et al. (2012) also established ambitious objectives in this regard. However, in the 2023 Periodic Report (State Party of Panama, 2023) Park administration highlight that capacity development across 12 disciplines, ranging from conservation and environmental sustainability to enforcement and interpretations is "good" for three, "fair" for five, and "poor" for four. They note that the Park is not using the World Heritage Guide for Capacity Building. The current status of staff capacity is unclear.

Environmental education programs are in place, but are "not well planned and sporadic" (IUCN, 2014). An environmental education centre was established at El Real, along with radio programs and program for students and volunteers (UNEP-WCMC, 2001; ANAM et al., 2008, 2007). The partial update for the operation of the Darién National Park management plan (ANAM, 2007) proposed the establishment of a "Community management and environmental education" program. No information on its implementation was found. The 2023 Periodic Report indicates that education and awareness raising about the existence, justification and values of the World Heritage Site is mostly "fair" among 11 target audiences (State Party of Panama, 2023). Only two target audiences appear to be well versed in the value and reason for the site, namely researchers and NGOs. Third-party corroboration of this self-reporting by the Park administration is beyond the scope of this assessment but would be advisable.

A low level of ecotourism, particularly highly specialized bird-watching, is provided by mostly private tour operators (UNEP-WCMC, 2011; ANAM et al., 2007). Development of sustainable tourism initiatives is hindered by the remoteness and poor infrastructure, as well as the perception of security challenges in the Darién Gap region. According to the Environmental National Report Geo Panamá 2014, the percentage of visits to national parks increased by 36%, but Darién National Park is reported as one of the parks with the lowest visitation (ANAM, 2014). The Strategic Plan for the Darién National Park (2013-2016) includes a Community Tourism sub-component and a Diagnosis of the tourism situation in prioritized areas. The 2023 Periodic Report indicates that, over the five years preceding the report, only 1,411 tourists visited the Park. The administration claims to have a tourism strategy in place, that awareness about the Park being a World Heritage site for tourists is adequate, that impacts from tourism remain low, and that low communities are both involved and benefiting from tourism (State Party of Panama, 2023). Corroboration is beyond the scope of this assessment but is encouraged. More consistent actions are needed to align tourism activities with the Master Plan for Sustainable Tourism Development of Panama for the years 2020-2025, ensuring that tourism adapts to the local context and conservation goals. It is essential that tourism development is grounded in principles of effective conservation, minimizing impacts on both biodiversity and local human populations. This alignment will guarantee that tourism can thrive while protecting the natural and cultural heritage of the region, benefiting both the environment and local communities sustainably manner.

The previous assessment (2020) referenced the "uncontrolled use of natural resources by native communities and colonists" as a major challenge for Park management. More recent studies (Alejo et al., 2025) provide supporting evidence that in some areas under Indigenous stewardship within the World Heritage site and Park, forest cover has remained stable due to traditional, culturally appropriate land-use practices. However, other areas under both Indigenous and non-Indigenous stewardship are likely experiencing the pressures referenced in previous assessments, yet more consistent monitoring is required to understand the extent and magnitude of impacts. Previous programs, financed by the Darien Conservation Fund (Windevoxhel et al., 2019) were developed to work with local communities to achieve sustainable use of local resources. However, in 2009, only 6 of the 33 communities in the Park were benefitting from the program (Vergara, 2009; ANAM, 2007), while more recent reports (Windevoxhel et al., 2019) indicate that community-based projects were focused only on four areas within the park, and four beyond its borders. The status of these projects whether any activities are ongoing, and if sustainable use is being achieved is unclear. Effective management and conservation practices have been implemented in Darién National Park, particularly within the Emberá community of Playa Muerto, facilitated by the Playa Muerto Tourism Cooperative. Since 2018, in collaboration with The Peregrine Fund and the Fundación Rapaces y Bosques de Panamá, community-based conservation initiatives have been established, focusing on the protection of key species such as the Harpy Eagle, sea turtles, and forest biodiversity. These actions have successfully integrated sustainable tourism as a tool for local development, generating direct economic benefits for the community while enhancing their capacity for managing and protecting natural resources in the area.

A monitoring system has been developed for the National Park but is not systematically being implemented nor used to inform decision-making and management. While there are selected monitoring projects, for example of avifauna, terrestrial mammals, anurans, or forests (Mateo-Vega et al., 2017; Mendez-Carvajal et al., 2021; Kunz et al., 2022; Moreno et al., 2023; Gray et al., 2024a, b) in some specific areas, the current situation does not amount to a coherent approach and effort (UNEP-WCMC, 2011; ANAM et al., 2008, 2007). The monitoring efforts detailed in the Strategic Plan (strategy #2) include conservation objectives of the Management Plan. Reports on the outcomes of previous monitoring efforts on conservation objects (e.g., jaguars, harpy eagles, semi-deciduous and deciduous forests) can be found in the literature (Lu Modestin, 2014), but appear to be time and geographically bound, with no clear plan for continuation. In addition, previous monitoring efforts do not appear to be specifically tailored to the World Heritage values, but rather respond to a TNC-supported Site Conservation Plan for Darién prepared in 2010 (Windevoxhel et al., 2019). As a result, it appears unlikely that the values for which the site was inscribed are being adequately monitored. Since 2017, in collaboration with the Playa Muerto community, a continuous monitoring program for the Harpy Eagle in Darién National Park was developed. Supported by The Peregrine Fund and Fundación Rapaces y Bosques de Panamá, this initiative focuses on protecting key species, including the Harpy Eagle and sea turtles. It integrates sustainable tourism, benefiting the community while strengthening its capacity for natural resource management and conservation.

The enormous scientific potential of the World Heritage site is undisputed but remains to be systematically realized (UNEP-WCMC, 2011; ANAM et al., 2007). Reasons include the remoteness and poor infrastructure which, on the other hand, adds to the attractiveness of the area for ecosystem research. It can reasonably be assumed that perceived and actual security concerns have contributed to the relative paucity of systematic research. However, in recent years, there has been an increase in research taking place throughout the site (e.g. Mendez-Carvajal et al., 2021; Moreno et al., 2023), with the noteworthy establishment of an action-research, community-driven "Old-growth Forest Observatory", known as Bacuru Droa in Embera, in the territory of Balsas (Kunz et al., 2022). This initiative has catalysed a number of research projects covering multiple taxa, ecosystems, and disciplines, and is based on a formal agreement between the communities within the territories and national and international research organizations and universities. Indigenous technicians have taken leadership roles in the design and development of the research programs. How much of emerging scientific knowledge is being used to inform management decisions within the World Heritage site is unknown.

There are several threats such as the humanitarian crisis, insecurity, the potential expansion of the Pan-American Highway and power transmission network, which lie beyond the direct influence of the management authority. However, the lack of a clear governance and management approach in collaboration with Indigenous communities, combined with insufficient funding and personnel, undermine the effectiveness of the current management system in addressing these threats to the extent possible.

See sections on "Governance arrangements" and "Management plan and overall management system" above. Since 2000, The Peregrine Fund has been collaborating with several communities to empower them and manage forests sustainably, using the Harpy Eagle as a flagship species. In 2017, the Peregrine Fund initiated a community-based forest management program that includes habitat restoration through agroforestry techniques, environmental education, and ecological monitoring. These actions have been guided by an institutional Management Plan (Unpublished) and a consensual vision for Darién (Delgado et al., 2019). The goal of this long-term program is to restore and conserve Darien forests by engaging local communities, government agencies, and national and international organizations in sustainable economic and environmental actions.