Kilimanjaro National Park

Along the tourist climbing routes, non-native species such as Poa annua occur that are introduced. However, vegetation surveys along the mountain revealed that those species do not invade natural systems (Hemp, 2008). Prior to the upgrading of the conservation status of the montane forest to Kilimanjaro National Park, human use and reforestation with exotic species were common practice. Most of the exotic species purposely planted in the lower montane forest include black wattle (Acacia mearnsii), cypress (Hesperocyparis lusitanica), eucalyptus (Eucalyptus spp.), and pine (P. patula) among others. These plant species are among the 220 potential and invasive species recognized by the government of the United Republic of Tanzania (URT, 2019). The emergence of invasive alien species seedlings, such as A. mearnsii, A. longifolia, Pinus patula, and Grevillea robusta in the lower montane forest, indicates a high risk of future invasion (Kikoti et al. 2022). Although not directly within the WH site, there is potential for these invasive species to spread further and affect the important biodiversity values of the site. TANAPA Invasive Alien Species Management Guidelines and improvements in monitoring and recording invasive alien species have been important, but effective removal has been limited (TANAPA, 2019). According to the National Invasive Species Strategy and Action Plan (NISSAP, 2019) for 2019 to 2029, the country has identified a total of 220 invasive and potentially invasive species of which 87% are alien and 13% are native.

Regular fires occur in the colline savanna zone and in the upper montane and subalpine zone and to a lesser degree in the submontane and lower montane forest zone (Hemp, 2005c). Due to an increasingly drier climate, and higher anthropogenic impact, fires have played an increasingly destructive role in the forests of Kilimanjaro during the last 100 years and in particular over the last decades. During this time Kilimanjaro has lost about 300 km² of high altitude forests due to fire and the upper closed forest line was lowered by 900 m. 32 fire incidences have occurred in the Kilimanjaro region between 2017-2021 (URoT Vice President’s Office, 2022). As these forests have an important function for fog water collection, this has an impact on the water balance of the whole mountain. Increasing occurrences of fire lead to a change in species composition in the upper montane Hagenia-Podocarpus forests at 2800-3000 m with the giant heather Erica excelsa becoming dominant at this altitude (TANAPA, 2023). Using vegetation and rainfall data the area of KINAPA was divided into 5 zones of fire risk. Over 40% of KINAPA is located in very high and extremely high fire risk areas. The last large fires in October 2020 and 2022 destroyed about 100 km2 mainly of subalpine bushland inside the zone of extremely high fire risk, meaning an annual loss of about 1.5 Million tons of fog water input (Hemp, unpub. data).

The majority of fires are anthropogenic (TANAPA, 2023). This may be intentional, for example when fire is used by poachers, cattle herders or honey gatherers, or accidental (e.g. in the case of visitor camp fires). The unnaturally frequent fires are likely to be having an adverse effect on natural community dynamics, particularly in the heath zones where fires are most extensive, but there is currently little understanding of the effects of fire (Tanzania National Parks, 2005). The region's fire risk is uniquely complicated by the intersection of natural vulnerabilities and human activities. Traditional practices such as beekeeping, increasing tourism pressure, and agricultural expansion along the mountain's periphery create a complex web of fire risk factors (Masao et al., 2022). These human-induced pressures, combined with climate change impacts, have made Mount Kilimanjaro increasingly susceptible to devastating fires (Mambile et al. 2024).

In September 2023 a large fire ravaged the upper northeastern section of the park (Joseph, 2024: Makoye, 2023) and the lack of equipment hampered quick response to prevent extensive damage. However, the cause and extent of the damage is unclear. In October 2022 a 24h long fire burned near the Karanga site and in October a fire affected 95 sq km. These fires were likely started by locals extracting honey or through illegal poaching activities (The Guardian, 2022). Fires occur mainly at the end of the dry seasons in October or March. Regular monitoring flights with a helicopter or small airplane at the end of the dry seasons particularly over the high-risk areas above 2700m could reduce the danger of too late detected fire outbreaks. However, to extinguish such fires in a reasonable time a large firefighting airplane is needed (TANAPA, 2023).

Although increasingly frequent fires pose a very high threat to the other important biodiversity values, the threat is less for the spectacular mountain scenery. Nevertheless, fires impact the vegetation zones which are a key attribute of the value for which the site was inscribed.

The park is surrounded by more than 90 villages (and five districts of Rombo, Hai, Siha, Moshi and Longido) and for the past 50 years the regional human population has been increasing. These adjacent communities are placing increasing pressure on the natural resources within the park boundaries, however the threat for the spectacular mountain scenery is low. Various threats emanate from almost all villages. Moshi, Rombo and Hai are known for illegal logging, firewood collection and livestock fodders. Illegal hunting for animals is most common in Rombo, Longido and Siha districts. Illegal logging accounts for 85% of the recorded illegal activities (TANAPA, 2023). Overall, predictions for the Northern Zone of Tanzania are that by 2030 agricultural land will have expanded by 8–20% under different scenarios and herbaceous vegetation and forest land cover will be reduced by 2.5–5% and 10–19% respectively (Kariuki et al. 2021). Significant decline of the primary forest has already occurred with about 19.83% degraded in the past four decades (Enoguanbhor et al. 2022). The continued growth of the villages on the mountain slopes makes it likely that overexploitation will take place in the near future. An aerial survey (Lambrechts et al. 2002) revealed that the forests of Kilimanjaro were heavily impacted by illegal logging of indigenous trees in most areas below 2500 m elevation (which lie outside the world heritage property but inside the (extended) National Park), thus reducing the functioning and ecological resilience of the entire ecosystem. Deforestation of the lower slopes is thought to be partially responsible for the retreat of the glaciers, by reducing the flow of moisture up the mountainside and depleting the mountain’s icy hood (Pepin et al., 2010). In particular the moist Ocotea forests that cover most of the southern slopes were undergoing serious destruction caused by the intensive illegal logging of camphor trees. On the eastern slopes this overexploitation has resulted in forests free of mature Ocotea but still with the same structure and otherwise the same species composition. These “potential montane Ocotea forests” cover an area of 110 km2 . This means one third of the actual camphor zone is already depleted and the remaining part is being heavily modified. The situation is similar for the second most targeted tree species, Juniperus procera. Only 40 km2 of cedar forest of a potential area of about 120 km2 on the whole northern slope were left in 2000 (Hemp 2006b). Illegal logging activities have destroyed most lower montane forests, including the habitats of the tallest trees of Africa (Entandrophragma excelsum) and the critically endangered tree species Garcinia tanzaniensis (Hemp et al., 2017). Today, after the recent repetition of the aerial survey in February 2025 about 25 years later and after the incorporation of the former forest reserve into KINAPA in 2006 the situation seems to have improved: Juniperus forests are recovering and illegal logging activities are decreasing (Hemp et al., unpub. data). Previously selectively logged sites have been shown to recover through seed rain from adjacent sites (Rutten et al., 2015). A tree planting initiative led by WWF, Kinapa and Tigo commenced in 2021 aiming to alleviate some of the deforestation cause by human activities. The overall aim is to plant 22,500 tree seedlings in Mbahe-Marangu and Ungwasi-Rombo (Elisa, 2024). The previous phase successfully planted 10,000 trees in the area. Furthermore, the NGO TanzMont, based in Old Moshi and under the guidance and administration of the KiLi-SES Project, aims not only to plant trees, but to use only indigenous, well adapted trees, and if possible, rare and endangered species such as Prioria msoo, Garcinia tanzaniensis and Entandrophragma excelsum. In combination with planting of fast-growing highly valuable timber trees such as Khaya anthotheca this NGO has the goal to enhance biodiversity, to restore riverine areas, and to improve the livelihood of people. However further action to address the increasing poverty of local communities is needed to address the reliance on the park's natural resources. This requires high-level political will.

Excessive tourism creates several problems related to litter and waste management, erosion of paths and trampling of vegetation (EoH Report, 2012). A 2003-2005 study identified a direct link between trail erosion and hiking pressure, and water contamination found at lower elevations (Wakibara et al. 2009), although agricultural runoff may also be a contributing factor. According to the 2013 World Bank report, key areas of the park have experienced increased environmental degradation around the slopes, including land degradation and loss of biodiversity. Given increasing tourism to the region, impacts from tourism is of concern without a suitable sustainable tourism strategy and management measures in place. More recent figures indicate that on average 50,000 trekkers attempt the summit yearly. In the 2022/23 season approximately 47,200 tourists visited the park. Although this is an increase since the COVID-19 period, it is not comparable to the peak recorded in 2011/2012 season, when approximately 57,400 people visited the park (Statista, 2025). However, according to KINAPA, more than 68.000 tourists tried to climb Kilimanjaro in 2024. Nevertheless, daily trekker limits and a maximum safe capacity on popular trails (e.g. Machame or Marangu) are in place.

Subsistence and commercial hunting is carried out in the forested lower slopes outside the World Heritage site boundaries (GMP, 2005), and to a lesser extent at higher elevations where its impact is limited due to the extremely rugged terrain and difficulty of capturing prey species (State Party of Tanzania, 2009). With the rapidly increasing population surrounding the national park, pressure on the natural resources within the park are also on the rise. Although the majority of illegal activities do not occur within the WH site itself, illegal hunting comprises 9% of the total illegal activities recorded in the national park (TANAPA, 2023).

The most obvious indicator of changes in regional climate are the decreasing glaciers and changes in plant coverage, affecting the spectacular mountain scenery. On Kilimanjaro, the overall glacier area in km2 has declined to less than 20 % of it’s extent in 1900 with a remaining glacier surface area on Kilimanjaro of 0.98 km2 (Hinzmann et al. 2024). The total surface area of glacial ice on top of Mount Kilimanjaro decreased by 88.3% from 1912 to 2013 (Burkhart et al., 2017). The rate of retreat accelerated from 2000 to 2013, when ice decreased by 40% (Burkhart et al., 2017). Studies suggest that the Kibo glacier will diminish by the mid-21st century. This retreat is mainly due to a reduction of cloud cover, moisture and precipitation (Mölg 2012). On permanent monitoring plots in the alpine zone no immigration of species of lower elevations was observed during the last decades, but a downward migration of alpine plants into lower vegetation due to recurrent fires (Hemp 2005, and unpub data). The occurrence of non-anthropogenic forest fires on Mount Kilimanjaro has already risen with climate change, which leads to loss of subalpine cloud forest at its upper (fire) and lower (ingression of low-elevation species) boundaries (Hemp, 2006a). Some studies have also already demonstrated a change in bird species and abundance in 20 years between 1991 and 2001 (Dulle et al., 2015). For example, the most prominent bird species of Mt. Kilimanjaro, the Lammergeier Vulture, is experiencing a downward population trend due to the melting of its heavily snow-dependent habitat. Additionally, warming temperatures are benefiting the spread of non-native species (Mjema et al. 2023). The decrease in snow cover, in turn, is having significant negative impacts on species of birds, mammals, plants and invertebrates native to the mountain's upper slopes. There may also be an increased incidence of landslides and flash-flooding if precipitation falls as rain instead of snow. At elevations above 3200 meters above sea level Erica excelsa forest has presently been replaced by Erica trimera and Erica arborea bush in most areas. Erica vegetation is largely influenced and controlled by fire. The growing influence of fire pushed down the forest line replacing Erica forests with Erica bush (Hemp 2005). The changing weather patterns have also impacted animal distributions as well as terrain characteristics. Changes in migration behaviour and population dynamics of large animals has been observed in the forests of Mt. Kilimanjaro. Kilimanjaro region has been classified as a drought-striken area (URoT Vice President’s Office, 2022).

In the past, the property was ‘buffered’ from adjacent settlements by a 5-10 km wide belt of protected natural forest and plantations, however there is now a sharp interface between village settlements and the park boundary, especially along the lower slopes. Kilimanjaro is becoming an increasingly isolated ecosystem, an ecological island, completely surrounded by cultivation. This has far reaching consequences for diversity and endemism as shown by bio-indicators such as endemic insect species (Hemp & Hemp, 2018). This increasing isolation requires urgent measures to ensure the ecological viability of species. For example, the loss of ecological corridors connecting KINAPA with Arusha National Park, Amboseli (Kenya) is notable, along with invasive alien species and intensive livestock grazing reported in the Kitendeni Wildlife Corridor. Additionally, riverine forest are important corridors linking upper and lower ecological zones of KINAPA. A collaboration between KINAPA, Pangani water basin and district council authorities is ongoing to improve the management of river systems.

Surface water is being extracted for human use in northern Tanzania including within the Kilimanjaro National Park. Around the southern slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro, the open unlined canals (Mfongo in the local Chagga dialect) have been used by Chagga people, an ethnic group of Bantu origin, for decades (Kimaro et al. 2019). Gravity based irrigation canals are still the major means of supplying agricultural water around Mt. Kilimanjaro. Horticultural practices have been expanding especially in lower elevation areas and there is an increased reliance on irrigation water due to changing rainfall patterns and farming practices. There has been a significant reduction in discharge in traditional irrigation canals and changes in seasonal flow patterns (Kimaro et al., 2019). Topographical factors and soil properties influence the dynamics of canal discharge, however, management of agricultural water also has a significant impact on canal water supply. Because an alternative supply of irrigation water is lacking, rising water demand further increases the pressure on available sources (Kimaro et al. 2019).

In combination with other factors (farming practices, climate change), water abstraction can impact water quantity and quality due to increased evaporation and reduced dilution, including of the organic and inorganic material emanating from crop irrigation. Salinity, fluoride and nitrate, increase downstream in the dry season to concentrations that may be harmful. Soil biota and sensitive vegetation in lowland zones may be more affected by changes in water salinity and mineral content. Furthermore, there seems to be a link between excessive water abstraction and the spread of invasive alien species. There were more invasive spp. and less or absence of natural wetland vegetation (such as rushes and sedges) in streams where water was completely abstracted, and in those areas invasive species prevailed, mostly Ageratum conyzoides; others included Vernonia auriculifera, Caesalpinia decapetala, Senna spectabilis and Solanum spp (Mnaya et al. 2021).

As the riparian and floodplain vegetation represent a vital component of the ecological integrity and ecosystem services in the Kilimanjaro landscape, they must be protected by wisely managing water resources at the watershed scale (Pallangyo, 2022). Both formal and informal water institutions influence the current water management around Mt. Kilimanjaro. At the community level, declining authority of village water committees has been observed for decades (Kimaro et al. 2019) and needs to be addressed, especially as population growth and agricultural and horticultural expansion will further exacerbate the pressure on available water resources.