Socotra Archipelago

The recent population increase on the island due to immigration and improved standards of life have concurrently increased demand for building material. Outside the site, this results in areas of Croton-Jatropha shrubland being cleared for building and used for firewood (sometimes, but rarely, for charcoal production for export). Whilst inside the site, wood harvesting is carried out for use as mainly fuel, rarely timber (IUCN Consultation, 2020). Socotra has become increasingly isolated and import prices increased due to political conflict. As a result, while recently fuel supplies increased, the prices however also substantially surged, leading to a strong local increase in wood collection (UNESCO 2016; Safar, 2021) since the demand for fire wood has been steadily rising due to surging immigration, tourism pressures and related activities (e.g. camp fires). The State Party states that only fallen wood is collected, and cutting down or damaging trees is not carried out (UNESCO 2015), however anecdotal evidence suggests that live wood is collected as well (IUCN Consultation, 2020).
An assessment of impact of wood harvesting suggests it could adversely affect several endemic bird species (Porter & Suleiman 2013; 2016; IUCN Red List assessments of Socotra endemics); timber harvesting is a possible threat in one IBA (Porter & Suleiman 2016). The dragon’s blood tree Dracaena cinnabari Balf.f. is already considered an umbrella species on Socotra Island, therefore the decrease in these species numbers will be an inevitable result of the Dragon Blood trees decline (Tamar, K. et al., 2019). Other vertebrates such as the endemic reptiles can be affected by such loss of vegetation, as several species are strongly associated with bushes and trees (Fasola et al. 2020; Safar, 2021). Land use changes outside the site (Hadiboh Area), including clearing of shrubland, has affected also aquatic invertebrates (Van Damme et al. 2020). The extent of wood harvesting in general however, and which plant and animal species are most affected, is not studied, but this is a primarily cultural shift linked to the breakdown of traditional land use practices, and the increased pressure on local resources linked to the economical situation of the country (IUCN Consultation, 2020).
In 2025, the government reports that the impact of energy shortages on wood consumption in Socotra, and wood consumption in general, is partly a cultural issue – Socotra used to have strong traditional rules against overconsumption of timber products for fuel. However cultural shifts as well as the shortage (during monsoons) of cooking gas and vastly increased tourism pressures (outside of the monsoon season), have increased the use of wood for cooking and camp fires. Implementation of the Zoning Plan, in particular in sensitive areas, should help to reduce these impacts, however more important here are awareness activities to highlight the need to protect wood as a resource. The UNEP-GEF-EPA project has several activities planned in this regard, however yet to be implemented in full (such as the suggestion of wood plots) (State Party of Yemen, 2025).

The property is increasingly vulnerable due to the security situation in Yemen resulting from political instability and lack of financial resources. The archipelago's distance from mainland Yemen has allowed it to largely avoid armed conflict, however political upheaval and social transformation have also reached the Archipelago and are negatively impacting the conservation and management of the WH site, and the interaction of these processes affects local livelihoods and conservation/development donor involvement (Van Damme, 2011; Peutz, 2018; State Party of Yemen, 2016-2025; UNESCO, 2018-2024). More generally, there is a likelihood of recurring fuel shortages (while prices have the tendency to increase steadily). Sociopolitical conflicts are ongoing with changes of ownership related to land and sea tenure, in addition to a lack of implementation of local laws and controls (e.g. accelerated selling of land to foreign investors and related uncontrolled development, as well as invasive species) which have a direct negative impact on the Outstanding Universal Value of Socotra. However, several conservation projects are able to continue through international development funding; at present all biodiversity conservation projects on Socotra are in partnership with the locally in power Southern Transitional Council which is backed by the UAE, and facilitate almost exclusively internationally funded nature and culture conservation projects (IUCN Consultation, 2020).

The use of pesticides has increased in recent years in the site including Temephos in anti-malaria campaigns since 2000, the recent treatment of coastal lagoons with insecticides from small aircrafts in April 2019 (Van Damme et al. 2020), against the will of the local government, and large scale spraying of date plantations becoming a norm in practice (IUCN Consultation, 2020). Localised effects on invertebrate fauna have been observed (Van Damme & Banfield, 2011), and although no effects beyond localised areas inside the site have been observed to date (Van Damme et al. 2020) and no data is yet available on circumstances inside greenhouses and built-up areas, effects are likely to have increased. These issues could affect endemic predators that depend on invertebrates (endemic bats; Benda et al., 2018). In particular with the advent of new alien species in date palm plantations (Witt et al. 2020) against which insecticides are used, effects on local aquatic and terrestrial fauna can be predicted, as previously suggested (Van Damme and Banfield 2011). In addition, the amount of solid waste in Socotra, in particular plastic waste, has visibly increased in coastal areas and mainly in the development areas; how this may affect the biodiversity of the site is unclear, however this has stimulated a culture of waste appearing all over; in particular in coastal lagoons, which harbour a rich biodiversity, this trend is very visible (see aforementioned references for photographs) (IUCN Consultation, 2020; Saraf, 2021).

Illegal hunting of sea turtles, collection of lobsters and shark fins have been reported as well as markets such as squid, sea cucumber and octopus export. The local authorities seem unable to monitor and implement strict rules in regards to illegal hunting and overfishing. The control over sea- and airports is fluctuating, and no data of the exact species and amounts are yet available that leave Socotra for export. Some of these activities are driven by international markets (Cheung and DeVantier 2006; Van Damme & Banfield, 2011), however some other activities may be localised and driven by local poverty or local disagreements. E.g. during the time of the COVID-19 pandemic, the access to import of essential goods was limited, which led to an increased consumption of local resources (Saraf, 2021). Illegal international trade is exacerbated by an increase in security problems in the Indian Ocean and limited law enforcement capacities of Socotra authorities to respond (Abulhawa et al, 2013). In addition, although this data exists, the lack of transparent marine data sharing by former partners of the State Party complicates the planning of conservation measures (e.g. understanding the size of the populations in nature of the hunted species, the markets, etc.). Illegal hunting of sea turtles increased around the breeding season in 2020 and continue to be seen sold sporadically in local fish markets, however the illegal activities are said to be met by a rapid response of the EPA Chairpersons (both in Yemen and Socotra branch) to stop the deliberate hunting and sales. The latter indicates both the concern and the will of EPA to continue to protect the site under the most difficult conditions (IUCN Consultation, 2020). The 2025 State Party report highlights that targeted protection and monitoring programs were established for Caretta caretta sea turtle nesting seasons at Abelhan Nature Sanctuary, which supports a globally threatened species listed under the CITES Convention. The programmes supported by the GEF-UNEP (#5347) project, RSCN, and EPA for the past four years have been critical in safeguarding the species during their annual nesting season from April to September. The project has also facilitated training for staff members from the Socotra Turtle Protection Association, representatives of the local community, and other key stakeholders, ensuring the program is sustainably managed and effectively implemented (State Party of Yemen, 2025).

There has been more than 900 km of roads constructed on Socotra Island since 2001 (Van Damme & Banfield, 2011). A decree to sustainably manage road construction in 2008 and political crisis since 2011 did temporarily reduced this pressure, but in recent years have accelerated again, and some new roads have been constructed recently (e.g. the creation of a multi-lane road connecting the airport to the main city of Hadibou that has recently started to be carved into the cliff along the shore where endemic species are spotted and which heightens the risk of further cliff erosion, as well as from Daneghan to Adho di Melho road which runs through a highly sensitive area with many endemics (IUCN Consultation, 2020).
In the past, these effects were strongly emphasized (Cheung and DeVantier, 2006), in some areas such as Eriosh, affecting both biodiversity and culture (Van Damme, 2018), and road networks increase access in most areas of the island (see maps on distance-cost in Riccardi et al. 2020). Indirect effects include habitat and hydrological fragmentation, potentially wildlife mortality, weaking of fragmented endemic vegetation population, solid waste and invasive species dispersal, disturbance, enhanced access for natural resource use and the facilitated transport of grazers to new areas increasing grazing pressure and access to wood for fuel (Van Damme & Banfield, 2011; Maděra et al., 2024). No maintenance program is in place for the large road network, which increases post construction impacts causing soil erosion, habitat destruction and fragmentation, downstream pollution and contributes to the perceived need for construction of new roads (Abulhawa el al 2013). Review of Porter & Suleiman (2016) suggests that fragmentation through road building and associated development could impact on several (8) IBAs. A detailed overview of road networks and their potential ranges of impact (heatmaps) are presented in Riccardi et al. (2020), however this latter study has shown that currently the vicinity to roads on tree vegetation in Socotra is not significant in comparison to governing climate and soil characteristics.
The State Party reports that due to insufficient management capacity related to the situation in the mainland, there have been local initiatives by private and foreign investors to expand the road network to some sensitive areas in breach of the OUV, for example, Haggeher mountains. Whilst the authorities note that road development should be assessed for impact on biodiversity, and where possible, remediation for negative environmental impacts sought, capacity remains limited (State Party of Yemen, 2025).

Beyond the effects of introduced livestock, there are several introduced mammals on Socotra which are known invasives and which may affect local and endemic faunas (Van Damme and Banfield, 2011). Three of the outlying islands in the archipelago with internationally important populations of breeding seabirds have been colonised by rats. This is only/mainly relevant in Darsa, where there is no human population and rats are the dominant mammals. Rats are a known threat to nesting seabirds. There have been so far no direct studies of their impact in the Socotra archipelago, and surveys to the outer islands are very sporadic and rare.  On the main island, the effects of the presence of rats, cats and civet cats on the endemic birds, reptiles and invertebrate faunas are unstudied; as these invasives have been on the island centuries, the ecosystems may have found a new equilibrium of which they are part; however roads and other changes may help spread these invasives to areas that were before fairly little exposed (Van Damme and Banfield, 2011). A similar situation exists for the presence of the Arabian Toothcarp in aquatic ecosystems in Socotra, of which populations were introduced through anti-malaria campaigns (Van Damme and Banfield, 2011; Van Damme et al., 2020). All of the above are vertebrate invasives that are known to have a strong effect on native faunas elsewhere in the world, therefore, although assessed as Data Deficient locally, the threat of these invasives, in accordance to data from other insular ecosystems, is high by extrapolation (Van Damme and Banfield, 2011).

The cyclones that hit in November-December 2015 and in May 2018 had serious impacts on both infrastructure, including increased soil erosion around roads (UNESCO, 2016), as well as on trees, terrestrial biodiversity and marine environment (State Party of Yemen, 2016). A detailed study has shown that the cyclones of 2015 destroyed 38% of all B. elongata trees (already a weakened population due to overgrazing) in the largest population in Homhil Nature Sanctuary, followed by loss of an additional 29% in the next two years (Lvoncik et al. 2020). Likely as a result of such vegetation loss in higher areas of Socotra island and valley slopes, soil erosion and landslides linked to a combination of overgrazing and such extreme weather events lead to a lower vegetation productivity according to satellite data and may compound existing threats to the endemic flora and fauna of the site (Maděra et al., 2019b; IUCN Consultation, 2020; Rezende et al. 2020; Attorre and Van Damme, 2020). Loss of vegetation by storms can affect endemic reptiles (Fasola et al. 2020), birds (Porter and Suleiman, 2016) and endemic invertebrates associated with the vegetation, and even the hydrological cycle of the island in which the trees play an essential role (Kalivodova et al. 2020; Attorre and Van Damme, 2020). The dragon’s blood tree Dracaena cinnabari Balf.f. is already considered an umbrella species on Socotra Island, therefore the decrease in these species numbers will be an inevitable result of the Dragon Blood trees decline (IUCN Consultation, 2020; Tamar, K. et al., 2019). In 2022, the Firmihin Protected Area, which contains the most concentrated area of Dragon Blood trees on Socotra, was newly established by Prime Ministerial decree and a management plan developed (State Party of Yemen, 2025). However, details of the degree of protection and management implications remain unclear. Severe weather events are expected to become more frequent due to climate change; climate mitigation measures as well as disaster risk management are urgently needed to reduce impacts and improve management effectiveness.

Commercial crop production related to a significant rise in immigration and population count has consequentially increased, albeit very localised, in recent years on the island (IUCN Consultation, 2020), resulting in locally increased water demand, biocide pollution, and the unwanted import of exotic plants and pests (Witt et al. 2020; IUCN Consultation, 2020). Even though most of the current agriculture is limited to date palm farming, homegardens and two larger vegetable production sites (outside the site but on Socotra island), there are strong associations with the import of crops (Witt et al. 2020). A new large food security project for Socotra (FAO) with the aim to establish large-scale agriculture activities and plots on the island, should take the vulnerability of the biodiversity of the site (also the buffer zone) into account in any of its future planning, as even the coastal lowlands, considered less biodiversity rich, still contain globally unique ecosystems and many endemics. At present the threats from agriculture are low, but without proper development planning and communication between all stakeholders, this can become a high risk for Socotra's endemic fauna, flora, and the cultures associated with traditional agriculture (date palm, millet farming) (IUCN Consultation, 2020). In 2025, the State Party reports that a GEF-7 project on “Resilient and Sustainable Livelihoods for Rural Yemen” (ID: 10562) aims to develop sustainable and resilient livelihoods for rural Yemeni by integrating climate change adaptation, biodiversity conservation, and sustainable land management into key sectors such as agriculture, livestock, and fisheries. Also that further funding is being sought under GEF-8 (State Party of Yemen, 2025). However from this report it is unclear to what extent agriculture remains a threat.

Grazing and fodder use have been reported at unsustainable levels, with excessive grazing levels evident, and has been attributed as the primary factor in the population decline (lack of regeneration) of Dracaena and Boswellia trees (Maděra et al, 2019a; 2019b; Lvoncik et al., 2020; Hamdiah et al., 2024) and compounds other threats such as landslides, soil erosion and habitat degradation (Van Damme and Banfield, 2011; UNESCO, 2016; Maděra et al., 2024). Overgrazing has been attributed, in combination with climate change (vegetation loss+rains/floods), to the loss of vegetation productivity in valley slopes and areas in the mountains (Attorre and Van Damme, 2020; Rezende et al. 2020). In particular in times of drought, the grazing has an enormous impact on regeneration of the natural vegetation, for example the Boswellia trees (Lvoncik et al., 2020; Hamdiah et al., 2024).
There is insufficient cooperation with traditional pastoralists to develop a sustainable grazing regime (Abulhawa et al., 2013), which was traditionally present (Miller and Morris, 2004), therefore this is predominantly a result of a cultural and economical shift (Van Damme and Banfield, 2011). Although the landscape and unique vegetation of Socotra have evolved with goats for millennia, and have traditionally been managed sustainably, a number of factors including the loss of traditional land management practices and increasing numbers of goats in response to increased demand from the islands growing population have begun to create overgrazing and overbrowsing (Scholte et al., 2008; Van Damme and Banfield, 2011). The livestock grazing activity is deeply anchored in local history and traditional practices, however, the dramatic socioeconomic transformation of the island by cash based and market based approaches already since the 1950s-1960s, have resulted in major alteration of the traditional lifestyle related to grazing (Miller and Morris, 2004; Scholte et al., 2008; Van Damme and Banfield, 2011), such that it is no longer a subsistence based activity, rather has evolved as a primarily commercial one. However also this is again shifting, as with development and new business in Socotra (more immigration), the types of economic activities have diversified (not only fish, date palm and livestock production). The overgrazing and its effects on the lack of regeneration of the vegetation and on soil erosion, can be considered as one of the main threats to the terrestrial environment of Socotra (Attorre and Van Damme, 2020).
In 2025, a study of grazing types and impacts which aims to reduce overgrazing is being carried out by UNEP, Mendel University, and the government. Also, the aforementioned GEF-7 project includes grazing management and organisation. The government states there is a need to establish a monitoring plan for grazing, and it intends to improve grazing regulation, support alternative livelihood activities and explore mechanisms to reduce grazing impacts (State Party of Yemen, 2025).

Recent studies show the impacts of climate change effects on the environment, leading to an accelerated loss of vegetation in certain areas (Attorre and Van Damme, 2020; Lvoncik et al., 2020; Rezende et al., 2020; Saraf, 2021; La Montagna et al., 2024). Coastal areas are sensitive to sea level rise, flooding and coastal erosion, and extreme weather events are exacerbated globally. Also coral bleaching has been established (Cheung and DeVantier, 2006), although no long term monitoring data has been comprehensively shared with the State Party to take the right conservation measures. Increasingly dry conditions are expected. A 2024 GEF/UNEP project assessment of erosion and climate change showed a 2.5°C temperature rise and a 16% increase in mean annual rainfall by 2100. Severe water erosion threatens 36% of Socotra, with extreme erosion in 8%, and high wind erosion was observed, particularly along southern and middle northern shorelines. The fragile soil, vegetation, steep slopes, and high wind speeds necessitate an urgent master land use plan to mitigate land degradation (State Party of Yemen, 2025).