Virunga National Park

Overfishing poses a serious threat to Virunga National Park, jeopardizing the ecological balance of Lake Edward, the livelihoods of local fishermen, and the stability of the region (Verweijen, J. et. al 2020). The lake, which lies within the park, has experienced a decline in fish populations due to excessive fishing pressure. Reports indicate that production has dropped from 15,000 tons to less than 400 tons per year, a direct result of the uncontrolled expansion of fishing efforts (Kiriko, J., & McGinnis, A. 2024). The number of boats on the lake has increased by over 300%, far exceeding sustainable levels (Kiriko, J., & McGinnis, A. 2024). This depletion threatens key species such as Nile tilapia and catfish, which play crucial roles in maintaining the lake’s ecosystem (Kiriko, J., & McGinnis, A. 2024).

The situation is worsened by widespread illegal fishing practices and corruption. Many fishermen use small-mesh nets, electro-fishing, and even mosquito nets originally intended for malaria prevention (Kiriko, J., & McGinnis, A. 2024). These methods capture juvenile fish before they can reproduce, further diminishing fish stocks (Kiriko, J., & McGinnis, A. 2024). The lack of effective regulation of fishing has allowed these destructive practices to persist, making it difficult to implement sustainable fisheries management (Kiriko, J., & McGinnis, A. 2024).

Beyond environmental damage, overfishing is entangled with the broader security crisis in eastern Congo. Armed groups such as the Mai-Mai and the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR) have turned the fishing industry into a lucrative revenue stream (Virunga-GWC Annex VI Report, 2023). These militias impose illegal taxes on fishermen, often demanding up to half of their catch in exchange for access to fishing areas (Kiriko, J., & McGinnis, A. 2024). In some cases, armed groups regulate entry to the lake entirely, forcing fishermen to navigate not only dwindling resources but also life-threatening security risks (Verweijen, J. et. al. 2020). The revenue generated from these activities helps finance militia operations, contributing to a cycle of violence in the region (Virunga-GWC Annex VI Report, 2023).

The socioeconomic impact of overfishing is severe. Many fishermen have been forced to abandon their trade due to declining catches and increasing insecurity, leading to widespread unemployment and economic hardship (Kiriko, J., & McGinnis, A. 2024). For many local families, fish is a primary source of protein, yet malnutrition is on the rise as fish prices increase and availability dwindles (Kiriko, J., & McGinnis, A. 2024). Women and children, in particular, are disproportionately affected, as they rely heavily on fish markets for sustenance and income (Kiriko, J., & McGinnis, A. 2024). The economic strain exacerbates tensions between local communities and park authorities, further complicating conservation efforts (Virunga-GWC Annex VI Report, 2023).

Virunga National Park is facing ecological consequences from this crisis. The decline of fish populations disrupts the lake’s food web, affecting not just fish species but also aquatic birds, hippos, and other wildlife dependent on Lake Edward’s ecosystem (418108 Virunga-Rewild Annex VI Report, 2024). As fishing pressures push fishermen to find other livelihoods, other forms of environmental degradation, such as deforestation for charcoal production, are also on the rise (2024 Annual Performance Report to USAID). The park’s ability to maintain its biodiversity is increasingly at risk as human activities intensify around its boundaries (418108 Virunga-GWC Annex VI Report, 2023).

Deforestation for charcoal production poses a significant threat to Virunga National Park, driven by a combination of conflict, displacement, and economic instability. Virunga lost 964 hectares (2,382 acres) of forest over just four months, with 20% of this loss occurring near informal refugee settlements (Mongabey News 2023). Rangers have observed animals, including chimpanzees, migrating to unaffected parts of the park in response to deforestation, indicating serious disruption to their habitat (Nyirabihogo, N. 2023).

Satellite monitoring has shown that deforestation in Virunga has reached unprecedented levels, largely due to the exploitation of forests for charcoal production (Erickson-Davis, M. 2021). This degradation not only eliminates critical habitat for wildlife but also accelerates soil erosion, reduces carbon sequestration, and contributes to climate change.

Charcoal is the primary fuel source for millions of people in eastern DRC. With over 97% of the 6 million people living around Virunga relying on wood or charcoal for energy, the demand for fuelwood is high (Cibemba, A., & Baruka, G. 2023). This demand has led to the rise of an illegal charcoal economy controlled by armed groups. Militias such as the Mai-Mai and the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR) have turned charcoal production into a key revenue stream, taxing production and transport while forcibly controlling access to forested areas (Cibemba, A., & Baruka, G. (2023).

The ongoing conflict between the Congolese government and M23 rebels has displaced over 1.7 million people since 2021, pushing many into Virunga National Park (Reuters 2024). Many of these displaced individuals have turned to logging and charcoal production for survival, as humanitarian aid remains scarce. Deforestation in Virunga has worsened as displaced people cut down trees for shelter, fuel, and income (Nyirabihogo, N. 2023).

Virunga National Park authorities and conservation organizations have attempted to combat deforestation through alternative energy solutions, stricter law enforcement, and community engagement programs. USAID has supported initiatives to promote liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) as a cleaner alternative to charcoal, reducing reliance on illegal logging (Cibemba, A., & Baruka, G. 2023). However, these efforts are hindered by insecurity and the widespread control of the charcoal trade by armed groups.
Virunga National Park’s hydroelectric power initiatives provide a sustainable alternative to charcoal. The park’s hydroelectric plants, including the Matebe and Lubero stations, generate renewable energy that supplies electricity to thousands of households and businesses in the surrounding communities. By offering an affordable and accessible power source, these projects decrease reliance on charcoal, which has been a primary driver of deforestation in Virunga due to the high demand for fuelwood. However, by themselves, they have not been sufficient to eliminate insecurity and demand for charcoal.

Civil conflict and armed militias pose a severe threat to Virunga National Park due to the interplay of violence, environmental destruction, economic destabilization, and human displacement. The presence of armed groups such as M23, Mai-Mai militias, Allied Democratic Forces (ADF), and the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR) has significantly impacted conservation efforts, local communities, and the park’s biodiversity.

One of the most immediate threats comes from direct violence. Armed militias frequently engage in clashes with government forces in and around the park, putting rangers, local communities, and wildlife at great risk. In 2023 alone, 14 park staff members were killed due to the ongoing M23 rebellion and escalating violence from FDLR and Mai-Mai factions (Virunga-Rewild Annex VI Report, 2024). The targeting of rangers severely hampers conservation efforts, as they are the frontline defenders of Virunga’s biodiversity. Many areas of the park remain inaccessible due to militia control, making it difficult to monitor or protect key wildlife species such as mountain gorillas (2024 Annual Performance Report to USAID).

Beyond direct violence, armed militias exploit Virunga’s natural resources to fund their operations. The illegal charcoal trade, valued at over $170 million annually, is a primary source of revenue for these groups (Einhorn, G., & de Merode, E. 2024). The FDLR, in particular, has turned charcoal production into a significant illicit business, leading to extensive deforestation and habitat destruction (Rugiririza, E., & Sengenya, C. 2020). Reports indicate that vast areas within the park have been deforested due to both armed conflict and the increasing demand for wood by displaced communities and local populations affected by instability (Reuters, 2024).

The environmental impact extends to poaching and overfishing. Armed groups poach large mammals, including elephants and hippos, for bushmeat, while also exploiting fish stocks from Lake Edward, often using destructive fishing methods (Rugiririza, E., & Sengenya, C. 2020). With many park rangers unable to patrol due to security risks, illegal wildlife killings have increased, further endangering already vulnerable species such as the mountain gorilla and African elephant (Virunga National Park n.d.).

Virunga National Park has the potential to be a key driver of ecotourism, attracting thousands of visitors annually. However, conflict and security concerns have led to prolonged closures, drastically reducing park revenues and depriving local communities of income-generating opportunities (Pierret, C. 2024). The decline in tourism revenue directly affects conservation activities, which are supported by visitor fees for park maintenance and anti-poaching initiatives.

Human displacement is another major consequence of the conflict. Fighting between militias and government forces has led to mass displacements, with over 1.7 million people forced to flee their homes (Reuters, 2024). Many displaced populations settle near or within the park, increasing human-wildlife conflicts and placing additional pressure on the ecosystem for resources such as firewood, land for agriculture, and water (Virunga-Rewild Annex VI Report, 2024). Additionally, displaced communities are often forced into illegal activities, such as poaching and logging, to survive.

The geopolitical implications of the conflict exacerbate the instability. The involvement of neighboring Rwanda in supporting M23 rebels has intensified hostilities, further complicating conservation and governance efforts (The Guardian, 2024). Reports suggest that the conflict is not just about territorial control but also about access to valuable minerals and natural resources in Virunga, which adds another layer of complexity to the crisis (The Guardian, 2024).

Subsistence agriculture around illegal occupations inside the park is a high threat to the park’s values. 67% of the park boundary is under moderate or high pressure. In October 2010, an estimated 37,182 ha of the park were illegally occupied (State Party of the DRC, 2016). The park is long and narrow (300km long, average width 25km with a minimum of 2.5km, 1150km of boundary), so encroachment threatens the connectivity between the uniquely diverse range of habitat types within the park. The integrity of the park is thus directly threatened. Deforestation and hunting are also associated with illegal encroachment. Deforestation in the southern and northern sectors also threatens the survival of certain endangered or endemic forest species (e.g, chimpanzee, l’Hoest’s monkey, and okapi). Hunting associated with illegal settlements has greatly reduced the exceptional mammal biomass of the Rwindi plains. The main areas affected by illegal occupations are: Southern Sector: Kirolirwe, Mugunga, and Nzulo. 12,500 ha of mid-altitude natural forest have been lost in Kirolirwe. Central Sector: Ndwali, the west shore of Lake Edward, and along the eastern border at Nyamilima. Encroachment along the west shore interrupts the ecological connectivity of terrestrial habitats between the south and the north of the park. Northern Sector: Lubilya, Djuma, Nyaleke. Deforestation in the Djuma sector threatens the dense humid rainforests of the Semiliki valley, where chimpanzees and okapi are found. Encroachment around Tshiaberimu mountain threatens the small population of Grauer’s gorillas, currently numbering only five individuals (Sikubabwo, 2015). From 2003 to 2015, ICCN recovered 25,788 ha. In 2016, 280 FARDC soldiers under the command of ICCN patrolled parts of Virunga NP, especially along Route 2 that crosses the park in the Central Sector and the Northern Sector, to protect civilian travellers from attack by armed groups. These were referred to as Sekolo I & II operations and are ongoing (State Party of the DRC, 2017). They have achieved some success in diminishing armed group activities in the park. In 2019, approximately one-fifth of Virunga NP (i.e., an estimated 18.5% of the Park's surface area (ca 1,000 km²)) remains under illegal occupation, corresponding to areas of cultivation and charcoal production. This shows a significant improvement since 2010, and a slight improvement compared to recent levels of 21% in 2017 and 19.4% in 2018. A consultation strategy with local communities is being implemented, where the Park is working through its Virunga Alliance development programmes based on tourism, hydropower & business support, agriculture & fishing, and the construction of electric fences (State Party of the DRC, 2020).

Volcanic activity remains an ongoing threat to Virunga National Park, with recent eruptions continuing to impact both the park’s ecosystems and surrounding communities. The eruption of Mount Nyiragongo in May 2021 demonstrated the severe risks posed by the region’s active volcanoes, resulting in widespread displacement of local communities, destruction of infrastructure, and loss of forest habitats within the park.

Relatively extensive areas of Sclerophyllous forests (forêts sclérophylles) are lost each time there is a lava flow. Since so much of these forests has already been degraded by illegal charcoal exploitation, the loss of even a small area of intact forest is a major concern with respect to the integrity of the park and the loss of chimpanzee and L’Hoest's monkey habitat. The volcanic activity also threatens communities living in the vicinity. Much of Goma town was destroyed by a lava flow in 2002. As this is a geological event, it is impossible to influence its occurrence or impact. However, it should be noted that eruptions can be an important source of tourism revenue. Areas of varying size of intact forests (tens to hundreds of hectares, depending on the direction of the lava flow) are lost each time there is a lava flow. Since so much of the natural forests have already been degraded by illegal charcoal exploitation, the loss of even a small area of intact forest is a major concern with respect to the integrity of the park and the loss of chimpanzee and L’Hoest's monkey habitat. The volcanic activity also threatens communities living in the vicinity.

The ongoing efforts to mitigate commercial hunting in Virunga National Park have resulted in measurable progress, despite significant challenges posed by ongoing armed conflict and regional instability. Security threats, including the resurgence of M23 rebels and incursions by Mai Mai and FDLR militia groups, have created severe obstacles to conservation efforts and, in some cases, facilitated hunting within the park. However, despite these challenges, the implementation of anti-poaching measures has led to notable improvements in flagship species populations, particularly elephants, hippos, and lions (418108 Virunga-Rewild Annex VI a Interim Narrative Report 2024).
The elephant population has increased from 423 in 2020 to 544 in 2023, with continued protection measures aiming to reach 800 by 2024 (418108 Virunga-Rewild Annex VI a Interim Narrative Report 2024). Hippo numbers are estimated at 1,400, reflecting a modest but encouraging increase of 100 individuals since the last assessment (418108 Virunga-Rewild Annex VI a Interim Narrative Report 2024). Active monitoring of lions has confirmed the presence of 11 individuals across three prides, with satellite collars enabling more effective tracking and conservation (418108 Virunga-Rewild Annex VI a Interim Narrative Report 2024). The population of mountain gorillas in 2024 is estimated at 240, with no recorded deaths due to poaching in the past year, despite restricted access to the Mikeno Sector due to rebel control (418108 Virunga-Rewild Annex VI a Interim Narrative Report 2024)..
Efforts to mitigate human-wildlife conflict have also contributed to conservation progress. The installation of 155 kilometers of electric fencing has helped limit human encroachment and reduce wildlife poaching by armed groups (418108 Virunga-Rewild Annex VI a Interim Narrative Report 2024). Community trackers have played a critical role in preventing human-wildlife conflict by monitoring gorilla movements outside the park and sensitizing local populations, ensuring that no retaliatory killings occurred.
The successful transfer in 2024 of four sanctuary female Grauer gorillas reinforced the existing population of 7 at Mount Tshiaberimu, bringing the total to 11 within Virunga National Park. Increased patrolling and partnerships between the park and GRACE, Gorilla Doctors, Re: wild, and many other experts contributed to making the reinforcement successful.

Ebola and other disease outbreaks pose a significant threat to Virunga National Park due to a combination of ecological, biological, and socio-political factors.
Mountain gorillas, which are a key species in Virunga National Park, are highly susceptible to the Ebola virus. Previous studies on Ebola’s impact on great apes have demonstrated mortality rates of up to 98%, with the virus reducing the global gorilla population by approximately one-third (Zimmerman et al., 2023). Simulation models predict that an Ebola outbreak among Virunga’s mountain gorilla population could be catastrophic, leading to a rapid spread of the virus within gorilla groups and high mortality rates. Ebola can spread among gorilla groups through direct contact and environmental contamination, such as through body fluids, carcasses, or shared feeding sites (Zimmerman et al., 2023).
The Virunga Massif, home to a large proportion of the world’s remaining mountain gorillas, is surrounded by dense human populations (up to 1,000 people per square kilometer) (Zimmerman et al., 2023). Due to this proximity, disease spillover from humans to gorillas is a major concern. Ebola outbreaks in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) have historically been linked to human-wildlife interactions, and human activity within and around Virunga increases the risk of transmission (Zimmerman et al., 2023). Habituated gorillas, which are accustomed to human presence due to conservation and tourism efforts, are particularly at risk because they are more likely to come into close contact with humans (National Geographic 2019).
Once introduced, Ebola spreads rapidly in gorilla populations. Even with vaccination efforts, no modeled intervention completely prevented widespread infection (Zimmerman et al., 2023). The only way to achieve a survival rate above 50% in case of an outbreak would be to vaccinate at least half of the habituated gorillas within three weeks of the first detected infection. However, given the region’s security challenges, deploying such a rapid response would be extremely difficult (Zimmerman et al., 2023). Controlling Ebola in Virunga is further complicated by armed conflicts, limiting access for conservationists and medical teams to implement disease monitoring and response measures (Virunga-Rewild Annex VI, 2024).
An Ebola outbreak could severely impact conservation efforts, reversing decades of progress in protecting Virunga’s mountain gorillas and other wildlife (National Geographic 2019). The park has great potential to benefit from ecotourism, which would contribute to conservation funding and support local communities. Disease outbreaks, such as Ebola and COVID-19, have previously led to prolonged park closures, resulting in financial losses and increased pressures on wildlife from poaching and habitat destruction (Neiman, S., 2020).
Ebola poses an existential threat to Virunga National Park due to the high susceptibility of mountain gorillas, the likelihood of human-wildlife transmission, the challenges of rapid outbreak response, and the broader socio-economic consequences of disease outbreaks.