Bale Mountains National Park

The governance of the BMNP under the General Management Plan (GMP) 2017-2027 has established a strong foundation for conservation and community engagement. The GMP recognizes the importance of stakeholder involvement and has fostered dialogue through cooperative agreements, participatory grazing zones, and the establishment of a Park Advisory Committee (PAC). A rights-based approach will be used to ensure that local communities are consulted in key decisions. Mechanisms to ensure Free Prior and Informed Consent (FPIC) and a Grievance Redress Mechanism (GRM) have been developed to safeguard community interests. Core Protection Zones (CPZs) and resource management regulations have been introduced to ensure ecological sustainability. All these plans aim to integrate conservation into local development strategies, with goals to balancing biodiversity protection with community needs (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024).
However, significant challenges remain in fully realizing these goals. Community participation in the development of the management plan was limited, leading to dissatisfaction and a sense of exclusion among local residents (Yimer, 2023). Although participatory forums exist, conflicts persist over access to resources such as fuelwood, grazing land, and farmland, which are vital to community livelihoods and fair benefit sharing (Gulte et al. 2023). In an interview carried out in Oct 2023, some long term residents indicated they had heard of relocation, but were unwilling to relocate, irrespective of the amount of compensation promised (Yimer 2023).
Institutional weaknesses further complicate governance efforts, with inconsistent enforcement of regulations and limited financial and technical capacity to implement the GMP effectively. Economic incentives for conservation, such as ecotourism and alternative livelihoods, have yet to be fully developed, leaving many local people uncertain about the benefits they stand to gain. Additionally, while gender equity is not explicitly addressed in the GMP, there is potential for greater inclusion of women in governance structures and economic programs linked to conservation.
A recent study reported that park management and government authorities use their authority to decide how local communities should participate in Bale Mountains National Park management initiatives (Gulte, et al, 2023). Such top-down approaches fail to adequately involve local communities in the decision-making processes, and have the risks of escalating the current threats, ultimately threatening its UNESCO World Heritage status. The park’s future depends on inclusive governance that empowers communities as conservation partners.

The site benefits from a strong legal framework that provides a high level of protection, ensuring its recognition as a World Heritage site is upheld. The Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority (EWCA) manages the park under Proclamation No. 575/2008, which establishes its mandate, and Proclamation No. 541/2007, which governs national wildlife conservation. The park is further protected under the Council of Ministers Regulation No. 338/2014, officially gazetted in Negarit Gazet 338/2014, aligning it with IUCN Protected Area Category II standards. Additionally, BMNP’s management strategies conform to broader national frameworks, including the National Biodiversity Conservation and Research Policy (1998), the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (2005), the Environmental Impact Assessment Proclamation (No. 300/2002), and the Wildlife Development, Conservation, and Utilization Policy (2005) and Proclamation (Negarit Gazet 163/2008). These laws and policies emphasize sustainable resource use, biodiversity conservation, and the requirement for Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) before development projects are allowed.
However, despite this comprehensive legal foundation, several challenges undermine its effective integration into governance and management. While BMNP’s ecological and outreach strategies align with federal and regional legislation, lack of coordination between stakeholders has resulted in conflicting development interests. For instance, various agencies have initiated permanent infrastructure projects within the park, such as roads and telephone towers, without consulting BMNP management or conducting EIAs (ECWA, 2017). These activities directly contravene existing government policies and legislation that prohibit such development within protected areas. The absence of a cohesive enforcement mechanism weakens the legal framework’s ability to maintain the park’s Outstanding Universal Value (OUV).

The Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority (EWCA), established under Proclamation No. 575/2008, is responsible for overseeing BMNP, providing a strong legal foundation for conservation. The park administration operates through a dedicated management office, supported by ranger outposts and mobile units to facilitate law enforcement, biodiversity monitoring, and community engagement. Roles and responsibilities are outlined through legal mandates and stakeholder consultations, with the aim to create a governance system based on shared responsibility. A key initiative in this regard is BMNP’s Outreach Programme, which aims to strengthen relationships with local communities and stakeholders, guided by principles that emphasize mutual respect, open communication, community participation, benefit-sharing, and coordination among stakeholders. According to the GMP, transparency and access to information are fundamental to the park’s governance, ensuring that stakeholders and rightsholders have a clear understanding of its management decisions. The park’s Management Plan and Strategic Plan (SP) provide detailed insights into the state of biodiversity, historical influences, and ongoing conservation challenges.
Given the complex socio-economic and environmental dynamics surrounding a World Heritage site, BMNP has established a dispute resolution mechanism to address grievances and conflicts, to ensure that disputes related to conservation policies, land use, and resource management are resolved through participatory and equitable processes. Additionally, BMNP has developed communication strategies that facilitate engagement with local communities, government agencies, non-governmental organizations, and researchers, to foster cooperation and long-term commitment to conservation efforts.
A critical aspect of BMNP’s governance defined in the GMP is its adaptive management approach, which follows a structured three-year planning cycle. This cycle is intended to integrate implementation, monitoring, and evaluation, allowing for continuous refinement of conservation strategies to ensure that BMNP remains resilient and responsive to ecological, social, and economic changes, in line with UNESCO’s principles for heritage conservation. However, the established governance structure has not translated into effective management actions. The property still faces severe challenges and threats, which, according to the GMP, are severe and increasingly acute and are likely to result in further loss and degradation of biodiversity and ecosystem services in the longer term (EWCA, 2017). The afro-montane and the afro-alpine regions have been subject to major habitat loss and degradation for many decades across most of its once vast distribution. Agricultural expansion, livestock overstocking and settlements are the most severe threats affecting the property along with the conversion of forests and grasslands to farmland, unsustainable harvesting of timber and other species (e.g., bamboo, coffee) and excessive levels of livestock.

All these and other pressures lead to the conclusion that the governance structure has not been effective in addressing the challenges to the OUV of the property.

BMNP is integrated into local, national, and regional planning systems through mechanisms outlined in its General Management Plan (GMP) 2017-2027. The park's management approach aligns with national environmental governance frameworks, requiring that development projects undergo Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) to mitigate potential threats to its Outstanding Universal Value (OUV). Also an Integrated Environmental Management (IEM) system is part of the GMP ecosystem based approach.
While significant progress has been made at the national level, integration at the local level remains slow due to the failure to accord the park’s OUV the highest level of protection in planning processes (see threats explained above).
The GMP adopts an ecosystem-based approach that integrates participatory rangeland management. An Outreach Strategy further reinforces this integration by facilitating the exchange of information, education opportunities, and development initiatives that benefit both conservation and local communities.
However, on-the-ground limited prioritization of BMNP’s OUV in local decision-making processes limits and undermines the effectiveness of BMNP conservation strategies.

The boundaries of the site are well-defined and align with the designated area of the park, effectively capturing its key biodiversity and ecological values under UNESCO World Heritage criteria (vii) and (x). Encompassing crucial habitats necessary for species survival, the park's boundaries are sufficiently large to support ecosystem functions, ensuring the continuity of biological processes and maintaining viable populations of its species assemblages. The spatial configuration of the park plays a vital role in sustaining these ecological processes, thereby enhancing ecosystem resilience and mitigating external pressures. The size and structure of the boundaries are deemed adequate for effective conservation management.
The park’s boundaries are legally defined, clearly demarcated, and officially gazetted, which should strengthen its protection and facilitates efficient management.
Surrounding BMNP is a well-established buffer zone that varies in width from approximately 5 to 20 Kilometers, encompassing all 29 adjacent kebeles (IUCN, 2024). This buffer zone should serve as a crucial protective mechanism, mitigating external threats and providing a transitional area where conservation-compatible activities can be implemented.

However, in reality, the boundary of the BMNP has not served its purpose thus far. Human encroachment into the park resulting in the escalating threats from increasing human settlements, expanding agriculture, deforestation, overgrazing, poaching, and unsustainable resource use is evidence that the boundary is not properly protected by management or respected by the local people.
The first and highest priority action must be to safeguard the boundaries of the Property as work continues to deal with other issues that are inside and outside the park.

Not applicable

In Decision 45 COM 8B.27 the UNESCO World Heritage Committee raised two concerns regarding the management of BMNP. First, the Committee sought to understand how the State Party was addressing the threats to the park’s OUV through the appropriate implementation of the GMP, particularly concerning unsustainable practices such as overgrazing by livestock. Second, the Committee requested clarification on how the State Party was ensuring that any proposed relocation of people and communities from within the park “follows a rights-based approach, ensuring free, prior, and informed consent (FPIC) of the affected communities and adhering to international best practices and applicable norms and standards” (WHC, 2023).

To address the issue of over-grazing, the State Party has developed a Grazing Pressure Reduction Strategy as part of the General Management Plan that aims to gradually reduce grazing within the park through a participatory approach that engages local communities. A key element of this strategy is the formation of Community-Based Organizations (CBOs), which will work with the government to establish natural resource management agreements. These agreements are intended to regulate grazing practices and promote sustainable livestock management. The implementation of this strategy is being phased over time, allowing communities to transition to alternative grazing practices and livelihoods (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024).
Additionally, the State Party is strengthening conservation regulations and law enforcement to prevent illegal grazing and habitat encroachment. Efforts are also being made to enhance stakeholder engagement, build institutional capacity, and address governance challenges. However, despite these initiatives, the effectiveness of the grazing reduction strategy remains uncertain. Limited financial resources, weak institutional capacity, and overlapping legislative mandates continue to pose significant obstacles. Furthermore, there is no clearly defined timeline for the full implementation of the grazing reduction measures, as success depends on multiple factors, including community cooperation and long-term policy support.
Beyond overgrazing, other significant threats such as deforestation, poaching, and infrastructure development also jeopardize BMNP’s ecological integrity. The GMP includes conservation measures to tackle these challenges, but enforcement remains difficult due to resource constraints and governance limitations. There is still no sufficient evidence of sustained financial investment and institutional strengthening, besides the development of strategies.
On ensuring the application of a rights-based approach to the relocation of communities, the State Party has committed to ensuring that any proposed relocation follows a rights-based approach, in accordance with international human rights standards and best practices that align with legal frameworks such as the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) and the World Bank’s Environmental and Social Standards (ESS 5, 7, and 10).
To guide the relocation process, the State Party has taken several key steps: (i) Two steering committees have been established to oversee and guide the development of a multi-sectoral Integrated Relocation Action Plan, (ii) A Free, Prior, and Informed Consent (FPIC) Protocol has been developed to ensure that affected communities have a voice in decision-making and that they fully understand the implications of relocation, (iii) A Community Engagement Plan has been developed to facilitate open dialogue and information-sharing with affected households, (iv) A Grievance Redress Mechanism (GRM) has been developed to address concerns and ensure transparency throughout the process, and (v) Socio-economic surveys are being conducted to assess community needs and identify relocation sites that provide viable livelihood opportunities (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024).

However, despite these efforts, the relocation process remains highly complex and unpredictable. Many of the affected communities have deep cultural, spiritual, and socio-economic ties to the park, making voluntary relocation very challenging to achieve. In addition, the success of the initiative will depend on multiple factors, including community willingness, financial availability, and governance capacity. Resistance to relocation should be expected, and those households that may be agreeable will need a lot of support to transition successfully.

The GMP includes specific provisions to protect the site's OUV from the negative impacts of climate change (EWCA, 2017). Recognizing the park as an important climate change reference area, the plan acknowledges that with global warming accelerating, the climate records of the Bale Mountains will be crucial for understanding the long-term effects of climate change on Afroalpine ecosystems.
Currently climate-smart agriculture is being piloted and the introduction of new crop varieties are being promoted by NGO partners in collaboration with the Sinana Agriculture Research Centre. BMNP should encourage the expansion of such initiatives and assist agriculture offices and other partners in promoting new crop varieties and indeed new crops. EWCA will also support the promotion of improved horticultural crops in park-associated communities such as highland fruits (apple, pear) production.
Furthermore, the management plan prioritizes ecological restoration as a means of counteracting land degradation caused by increased human settlement, overgrazing, and deforestation. By restoring ecosystem health, the plan seeks to mitigate the impacts of climate change and maintain biodiversity integrity.
A system is in place to measure and monitor climate change effects on the park’s OUV. The management plan underscores the importance of scientific research, particularly on the impact of climate change on endemic species distribution and ecosystem functioning. One of its key priorities is to monitor the habitat and altitudinal shifts of bird species within BMNP, which serve as indicators of climate change. The park’s climate data will be essential in assessing how rising temperatures affect high-altitude ecosystems and biodiversity over time.
BMNP is also managed to support and maximize global climate action efforts, including adaptation, mitigation, communication, and innovation. Adaptation is promoted through maintaining ecosystem resilience, ensuring functional connectivity, and prioritizing ecological restoration to reduce climate vulnerabilities. While the plan does not explicitly outline climate mitigation strategies, its focus on forest conservation and habitat restoration indirectly contributes to carbon sequestration and climate regulation. Additionally, the designation of BMNP as a climate reference area fosters research and knowledge-sharing on climate change impacts in Afroalpine ecosystems. By integrating these climate action strategies, the management plan aligns with broader global efforts to address climate change challenges.
In summary, the BMNP General Management Plan (2017–2027) integrates climate resilience strategies by ensuring the long-term sustainability of its ecosystems, monitoring climate change effects, and implementing ecological restoration efforts.
However, like all other activities outlined in the GMP, the incorporation of climate action strategies in various programmes while ecosystems, including forests, are experiencing intense threats from farming communities, overgrazing and increased settlements, remains a promise to be kept.

The site is managed under a structured General Management Plan (GMP) that covers the period from 2017 to 2027, which provides a strategic and operational framework for managing the park and its interactions with surrounding communities (EWCA, 2017). It is organized into five key management programmes: Park Operations, Tourism Management, Interim Settlement & Grazing Management, Outreach, and Ecological Management. Each programme follows a logical framework approach that groups related topics together, aligning them with the park’s management responsibilities. The plan outlines a long-term strategy with guiding principles, objectives, and general actions that serve as a roadmap for achieving conservation and management goals.
A key feature of the GMP is its adaptive management structure, which includes a three-year rolling action plan for each programme. These action plans provide detailed steps for achieving programme objectives within short-term cycles, allowing for periodic assessment and adjustments based on progress and emerging challenges. The idea behind this structure is to ensure that the park’s management remains dynamic, flexible, and responsive to changing priorities, ecological conditions, and socio-political contexts. Additionally, a separate Tourism Development Plan guides actions aimed at improving community benefits from tourism while managing visitor impacts on the park. Despite this well-organized framework, the implementation of the GMP has faced several significant challenges. One of the main issues is the delay in executing the three-year action plans. The park is still operating within the first three-year cycle (2017–2020), meaning that subsequent updates and reviews have not progressed as planned. This stagnation limits the plan’s effectiveness and its ability to adapt to new conservation and management realities.
Another challenge is the over-reliance on external partners, such as the Frankfurt Zoological Society, as well as local Community-Based Organizations (CBOs) and task forces. Many of these partners have been assigned critical responsibilities, yet they may lack the financial and technical capacity to fulfil their roles effectively. This gap in resources may lead to inconsistencies in implementing planned actions, further delaying progress.
The GMP also identifies key threats to the park, such as human encroachment, settlement expansion, livestock grazing, and resource extraction. While it outlines measures to address these issues, park management has struggled to find sustainable solutions that balance conservation goals with the rights and livelihoods of local communities. Efforts to mitigate threats may face resistance from local populations who depend on natural resources for their survival, creating tensions that complicate enforcement and policy implementation.
Local employment and community wellbeing are integral to the park’s management strategy, particularly under the Outreach and Ecological Management Programme. The Tourism Development Plan is intended to foster economic benefits for local communities through sustainable tourism initiatives. However, these efforts have been insufficiently implemented, largely due to resource constraints and a lack of capacity among local organizations. In many cases, community-based conservation responsibilities have been assigned without adequate support, making it difficult for local stakeholders to effectively participate in conservation initiatives. The impact of BMNP management on local communities remains mixed. While some efforts have been made to integrate conservation with community benefits, conflicts over land use and resource access persist, explaining widespread illegal activities in the park.
The State Party acknowledges the need to balance conservation integrity with local rights, but practical implementation of this balance remains a work in progress (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024). Without stronger engagement strategies and tangible benefits for communities, resistance to conservation measures is likely to continue.
These challenges, particularly the delay in rolling out of the three-year action plans to ensure that the management plan remains up to date and relevant, calls for better coordination, stronger leadership, and regular progress reviews. Second, resource mobilization needs to be enhanced to ensure that partners and CBOs have the financial and technical capacity to carry out their assigned responsibilities. In conclusion, while the Bale Mountains National Park has a well-structured and thoughtfully designed management plan, its implementation has been hindered by delays, resource constraints, and limited community engagement. Addressing these challenges requires stronger coordination, increased funding, adaptive management, and a more inclusive approach that ensures both conservation goals and community needs are met. In the prevailing circumstances, the GMP is unable to fulfil its role as an effective guide for the sustainable management of this UNESCO World Heritage site.

The legal framework within the site is enforced through a series of well-designed measures aimed at upholding conservation regulations while ensuring compliance with sustainability and biodiversity protection goals. The park has adopted advanced monitoring tools such as the SMART (Spatial Monitoring and Reporting Tool) and EarthRanger data systems to enhance the ability to track ranger movements, detect infringements, and collect critical data on wildlife and habitat conditions. These technological advancements have the capacity to strengthen law enforcement efforts by improving patrolling efficiency and ensuring a more coordinated approach to conservation. To further enhance enforcement capacity, rangers have undergone specialized training in community relations and law enforcement skills, equipping them with the necessary expertise to engage with local communities while effectively carrying out their duties. Additionally, a new patrol roster system to maximize ranger efforts, ensure comprehensive coverage of vulnerable areas and a timely response to potential threats has been introduced to strengthened the effectiveness of enforcement activities (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024).
Collaboration with local law enforcement agencies has also been prioritized, with formal Memorandums of Understanding (MoUs) signed to foster joint efforts in protecting the OUV. The enforcement framework includes a structured permit system that ensures compliance with park regulations while recognizing the rights of indigenous peoples and local communities to access resources in designated areas, while implementing fees and fines for unsustainable resource use (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024).
Rangers receive training on the appropriate use of force and human rights protection, with a strong emphasis on upholding the dignity of individuals while carrying out conservation responsibilities. A Grievance Redress Mechanism (GRM) has also been established as a platform for individuals and communities to voice concerns or file complaints.
These are steps in the right direction. However, protection of the OUV of the park will will require more enhanced efforts to effectively address the growing human population within the park and the corresponding high demand this population places on the resources found in the park. Effective law enforcement is needed to address illegal encroachment by permanent and temporary settlements, agricultural expansion, livestock grazing, deforestation as well as some unsustainable natural resource use (bamboo, honey, wild coffee harvesting and rangeland) inside the park. These will constitute the true measures of success.

Evidence of weak law enforcement include the admission in the BMNP of (i) increasing human settlement, (ii) increasing agricultural expansion, (iii) increasing grazing pressure, the three greatest threats to the OUV of the property. Over-harvesting of resources, particularly fuelwood and construction materials, has further degraded the park's ecosystems. All efforts to address these and other threats have not been significantly actualized on the ground, though many efforts have been made to develop programmes and mechanisms to implement them (see above).

Some of the weaknesses identified in the current management plan include (i) capacity - limited number of scouts, (ii) insufficient funds, (iii) poor patrolling system and practices, (iv) legally disempowered scouts and poor follow up on legal issues, (v) limited infrastructure for staff and patrolling over whole park; (vi) difficult access to remote areas, (vii) insufficient rapid back up for scouts from HQ (ECWA, 2017).

An assessment of the financial resource needs has been reported in the GMP 2017-2027 (EWCA, 2017). The assessment observed that funding for the park has been inadequate for decades, making it difficult to implement effective management measures. The GMP reports that the park’s budget is among the lowest globally, at $0.8 per hectare, compared to a global average of $12.6 per hectare and regional averages of $9.7 per hectare in Tanzania and $10.0 per hectare in Kenya. This substantial funding gap presents a major challenge to maintaining the park’s ecological and cultural values. According to the GMP, the park relies on multiple funding sources, including carbon credits from REDD+, revenue from the Bale Mountains Eco-lodge in Harenna Forest, park entry fees, corporate and individual sponsorships, grants and donations, government central budget allocations, and a community conservation levy on park entrance fees (EWCA, 2017). However, many of these sources are unreliable. The GMP reports that several of these strategies have not yet yielded funds, while others face significant challenges due to bureaucratic hurdles, slow approval processes, and regulatory constraints. One major obstacle is that all revenue generated by BMNP is returned to the central treasury, leaving little flexibility for park managers to reinvest in operations. Additionally, any financial measures, such as fee adjustment or establishing trust funds, require approval from the Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority (EWCA) headquarters or federal authorities, limiting the park’s ability to independently secure and manage its funds.
To address these financial constraints, BMNP has adopted a combination of cost-cutting and revenue-generating strategies through the privatization of Dinsho Lodge to reduce operational costs, and focuses on promoting research partnerships with academic institutions and increasing the use of volunteers to support park activities. Additionally, Ethiopian government is expected to increase financial support, particularly for significant expenses such as the relocation compensation for park inhabitants..
Despite these efforts, financial sustainability remains a major concern for BMNP. Structural changes are needed to allow the park to retain at least a substantial portion of its revenue, and some flexibility in diversifying funding sources.

The site faces significant challenges in staff capacity, training, and development, which are crucial for effective in the management of the property. The current GMP acknowledges these shortfalls and outlines actions to address them (EWCA, 2017).
Staff capacity and numbers are currently insufficient to manage the park effectively. The number of scouts is inadequate, and overall working conditions, staff morale, and professionalism are not yet at the required level. Additionally, there are structural and staffing gaps, particularly in higher-level technical expertise, which affect the park’s ability to retain staff and address turnover issues.
Regarding staff capability and training, the GMP recognizes the need to build a professional and well-trained workforce. In 2015, park staff identified significant gaps in park management and administration, including poor salary packages, inadequate field and office equipment, and a lack of a computerized data management system. Well being, respect, and nurturing of staff by the management authority were aspects that were identified as requiring significant improvement. Poor and insufficient staff accommodation, a lack of employment benefits, and limited accident and medical insurance provisions are some of the areas flagged as requiring attention.
To address these concerns, the GMP proposes measures such as improving housing, providing uniforms, and introducing medical/accident insurance, and further recommends the acquisition of a transparent and effective human resource management system, along with an internal reward system to boost morale. It is not clear the extent to which these recommendations have been implemented.
The availability and accessibility of equipment and infrastructure are also areas of concern. Limited office and field equipment, as well as inadequate storage facilities hinder staff efficiency. Proper infrastructure, such as accommodation and workspaces, remains insufficient, which affects both morale and operational effectiveness .
Poor coordination at the management level exacerbates the problem, leading to inefficiencies in the upkeep and replacement of essential assets. While the GMP outlines steps to address these concerns, such as developing a strategy to fill capacity gaps and ensuring better human resource management, the extent to which these measures have been implemented remains to be evaluated.
Ultimately, the successful implementation of the GMP depends on the empowerment and motivation of BMNP staff. Ensuring that they are well-equipped, trained, and supported will be critical for achieving the park’s long-term conservation goals. Addressing these challenges will not only improve staff capacity but also enhance the overall management effectiveness of the site.

Education, interpretation, and awareness programs play a crucial role in enhancing the understanding of Bale Mountains National Park’s (BMNP) values among various stakeholders, including local communities and government bodies. Through environmental education initiatives, the park has developed strategies to create awareness about its ecological significance and promotes responsible behaviour towards conservation. These programmes are designed to not only provide information about BMNP’s importance as a UNESCO World Heritage site but also to inspire action and behavioural change among stakeholders. By integrating environmental education into both formal and informal settings, these efforts help bridge the gap between conservation principles and local realities, reinforcing cultural and traditional knowledge while advocating for sustainable interactions with the park. The involvement of organizations such as the Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Programme, Melca Mahiber, FZS, and Farm Africa/SOS Sahel has further strengthened these programmes by offering targeted education for park-adjacent communities.
In terms of regulations and sustainable resource use, the park has created education and awareness programmes to ensure that communities and stakeholders understand the importance of adhering to conservation guidelines. These efforts aim to explain the rationale behind BMNP’s existence, emphasizing the need for sustainable management of its resources. The management plan outlines key actions to enhance conservation education, such as developing a comprehensive environmental education strategy, evaluating and harmonizing existing programs, and identifying target audiences with clear, outcome-based messaging. Additionally, the capacity of park and government staff is being strengthened to improve environmental education delivery. Programs targeting schools and elders' environmental clubs have been expanded, and include visits to the park for key stakeholders to deepen their understanding of conservation challenges. These initiatives are collectively aimed at contributing to an informed stakeholder base that supports the park’s long-term sustainability while fostering community involvement in resource management.

The Ethiopian government, along with conservation organizations, recognizes BMNP as a critical natural and cultural asset, incorporating its values into broader tourism strategies. These policies emphasize the park’s role in sustainable tourism, highlighting its endemic species such as the Ethiopian wolf and mountain nyala, as well as its breathtaking landscapes, including the Sanetti Plateau and Harenna Forest. The inclusion of BMNP in national tourism planning ensures that its ecological and cultural importance is actively promoted both domestically and internationally.
The BMNP General Management Plan (GMP) for 2017–2027 provides a well-defined tourism and visitation framework aimed at enhancing visitor experiences while preserving the park’s ecological integrity. The GMP outlines a structured approach to managing visitor services, ensuring that tourism development aligns with conservation goals. The plan recognizes the need for regulated tourism growth, balancing increased visitation with the protection of BMNP’s unique biodiversity.
Overall, BMNP’s tourism strategy, as outlined in the GMP, seeks to balance visitor experiences with conservation priorities. The plan recognizes the park’s potential to becoming a leading ecotourism destination in Africa while ensuring that tourism development remains environmentally and socially responsible. Through sustainable infrastructure, community involvement, and stringent impact management, BMNP is positioned to enhance its global appeal while preserving its extraordinary natural and cultural heritage.
However, the message from the GMP is sobering: It reads, “(i) The presence of human settlements and domestic livestock in many areas of the BMNP has a highly detrimental effect on tourism prospects. This is not normal in national parks around the world and if Ethiopia has ambitions to compete internationally as a tourism destination this issue must be urgently addressed; (ii) Overgrazing by livestock results in a lack of botanical diversity, insect life and consequently the presence of birds and other charismatic wildlife; (iii) Human presence serves to disturb wildlife (making it more difficult for visitors to experience wildlife viewing) and erodes the natural/wilderness character of the Park; (iv) Perhaps the most significant issue of all is the prospect of rabies transmission from domestic dogs to Ethiopian wolves – a major threat to the BMNP’s best tourism asset. In general, visitors are always happy to encounter local people and are interested to learn about and experience local culture and customs, (v) The presence of the public road within the BMNP makes non-tourism traffic noise and visibility a significant issue in certain locations”.
It is notable the OUV and tourism in BMNP are threatened by exactly the same factors. It is, therefore, reasonable that they share the same concerns.

The General Management Plan (2017–2027) outlines a structured approach to ensuring the sustainable use of natural resources while maintaining the conservation values of the park. The plan integrates conservation priorities with community livelihoods, aiming to balance ecological integrity with sustainable resource utilization.
Assessments of the type and level of resources that can be extracted without jeopardizing the park’s conservation status have been identified as a critical area of focus. The management plan emphasizes the need for research to determine sustainable extraction limits and assess the impact of legal resource harvesting (EWCA, 2017).
To ensure that resource use within and around BMNP remains sustainable and does not negatively impact its conservation values, several mechanisms have been established. The management plan encourages regulated agreements for seasonal resource use, ensuring that practices such as beekeeping and honey harvesting follow sustainable guidelines. Additionally, the Participatory Forest Management (PFM) model has been instrumental in engaging communities in conservation efforts, fostering a sense of shared responsibility (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024). The plan also highlights the importance of collaboration among government agencies, conservation authorities, and local communities in managing the controlled hunting areas (CHAs) and refining quota systems for species like the mountain nyala. However, there are still gaps in enforcement, monitoring, and benefit-sharing mechanisms, which require further strengthening to achieve long-term sustainability.
Despite the efforts to regulate resource use, some activities currently pose threats to the conservation of BMNP. The expansion of semi-forest and forest coffee production, while economically significant, presents a risk of biodiversity loss if not properly managed. Similarly, unsustainable harvesting of non-timber resources such as bamboo and grass is an ecological concern. The plan acknowledges these threats and proposes solutions such as promoting alternative livelihoods, encouraging sustainable agricultural practices, and implementing stricter monitoring of resource extraction. Strengthening enforcement mechanisms, increasing community involvement in decision-making, and providing incentives for conservation-friendly practices are critical steps to mitigating these threats.
The plan also recognizes the rights of local communities to access cultural and natural resources within BMNP. Community members are allowed to engage in regulated resource use activities, including beekeeping, honey harvesting, and forage collection, through structured agreements. However, challenges remain, particularly in the governance of controlled hunting areas, where local communities have had limited participation and benefit-sharing opportunities (Gulte et al. 2023). The plan seeks to enhance community involvement in CHA governance to ensure that economic benefits are more equitably distributed and that local people develop a stronger stake in conservation efforts. The success of Participatory Forest Management provides a model that could be expanded to other resource governance areas, reinforcing the rights of rightsholders while maintaining ecological sustainability.
In conclusion, BMNP’s General Management Plan demonstrates a commitment to balancing conservation and sustainable use. While assessments of resource use sustainability are ongoing, and mechanisms have been put in place to regulate resource extraction, though some gaps in enforcement and benefit-sharing remain. Unsustainable practices, particularly in coffee expansion and non-timber resource harvesting, pose risks that require stronger regulatory frameworks and alternative livelihood strategies.

BMNP GMP has a structured Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) framework to track conservation status and assess management effectiveness (EWCA, 2017). This includes social, economic, and environmental monitoring programs, with the Ecological and Threat Monitoring (ETM) Programme playing a key role in tracking wildlife populations and environmental pressures. Regular monitoring is conducted by the Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority (EWCA), park management, and conservation partners like the Frankfurt Zoological Society (FZS) and the Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Programme (EWCP). The EU-funded SHARE II Project assesses socio-economic impacts, ensuring that conservation benefits, such as tourism and livelihoods, are also monitored.
However, BMNP faces significant challenges. Limited financial and human resources constrain monitoring efforts, with heavy reliance on external funding. Community participation in ecological monitoring remains weak, missing opportunities to integrate traditional knowledge. Inconsistent funding has led to gaps in long-term ecological data, and weak stakeholder coordination reduces efficiency in data collection and analysis. Moreover, climate change monitoring is inadequate, limiting adaptation strategies, and enforcement against illegal activities like poaching and overgrazing is weak. Over-reliance on external expertise also hinders the development of local research capacity.
Limited implementation of the monitoring programme undermines the ability of the park to effectively use the adaptive management approach to conserve BMNP resources and protect its World Heritage values.

Research in BMNP is carried out to support adaptive management and conservation planning. A prioritized research list provided in the GMP aims to align research with conservation priorities. The list also serves as a guide for future studies, promoting studies to address knowledge gaps (EWCA, 2017). Due to resource limitations, BMNP relies on partnerships with academic and research institutions to enhance data collection and conservation decision-making.
BMNP management facilitates research by assisting with permits, providing logistical support, and helping secure funding. Operational guidelines ensure data sharing and capacity building, though further efforts are needed to maintain a centralized research database.
Strengthening institutional capacity, inhouse funding for critical research on priority management needs, improved collaborations and partnerships will remain key to maintaining BMNP’s ecological integrity and long-term conservation success. However, a mechanisms for evaluating and implementing critical research findings should be established .

The information provided in this assessment indicates that the management system is unable to address threats outside the BMNP. It has not managed to stop the encroachment of people entering the park from the 26 Kebeles that surround it (EWCA, 2017) and use BMNP as alternative communal grazing areas. The GMP indicates that most outreach programmes working on activities outside BMNP do not fall under BMNP mandate, and are mainly donor funded. However, through the GMP outreach programme strategy, BMNP will facilitate such projects to ensure that activities are in line with park development and reduced pressure on the park. This raises serious concerns because the escalating threats to BMNP (i.e., human encroachment with their livestock and increasing demand for agricultural land and other ecosystem services and resources) are originating from outside the park. The GMP reports that public land administration authorities in the areas surrounding the park do not have the capacity or funds to develop legally binding land use plans and also lack regulatory capacity for their implementation.

The 2017-2027 ten year General Management Plan is still in the first phase of implementation. Most of the activities have been focused on developing strategies, programmes and tools for implementing action on the ground (such as signing Park Cooperative Agreements, developing Core Protection Zones, establishing steering committees to guide the relocation, developing a socio-economic survey tool, establishing a Community Engagement Plan and Free, Prior, and Informed Consent Protocol, establishing a Grievance Redress Mechanism, developing the Grazing Management Plan, instituting a system of fees and fines associated with resource use, implementing a new patrol rosters system, equipping ranger teams with the necessary gear and technology, signing MoU with local law enforcement agencies, conducting training sessions for rangers focused on human rights and the appropriate use of force (see State Party of Ethiopia, 2024). Although all these efforts are critical for achieving the overall conservation objectives, they are inadequate to addressing the significant threats facing the OUV of the property. The GMP’s strategic vision is sound, but implementation gaps and structural barriers currently prevent meaningful threat reduction.