Réserve forestière de Sinharaja
Country
Sri Lanka
Inscribed in
1988
Criteria
(ix)
(x)
The conservation outlook for this site has been assessed as "significant concern" in the latest assessment cycle. Explore the Conservation Outlook Assessment for the site below. You have the option to access the summary, or the detailed assessment.
Summary
2025 Conservation Outlook
Finalised on
11 oct 2025
Significant concern
Current state and trend of VALUES
Low Concern
Overall THREATS
Overall PROTECTION and MANAGEMENT
Full assessment
Description of values
Rare, threatened and endemic invertebrate species
Criterion
(x)
The endemic invertebrates in Sinharaja include nine species of butterflies and 12 species of land snails (Bambaradeniya et al., 2003). An endemic tree-climbing crab (Ceylonthelphusa scansor) was discovered in Sinharaja during the mid 1990’s (Ng, 1995). A new odonate species was discovered in the buffer zone of the forest in 2009 (van der Poorten, 2009). A study on species richness of ants in a 0.6 ha research plot in Sinharaja has documented 100 species, including the endemic and relict ant Aneuretus simoni (Gunawardena et al., 2012).
Rare, threatened and endemic mammals
Criterion
(x)
75% of the mammal species (15 of 20) endemic to Sri Lanka occur in Sinharaja (Bambaradeniya et al., 2003; Rajeev and Vidanapathirana, 2012). A small mammal species new to science (Sinharaja Shrew - Crocidura hikmiya) was discovered in the Sinharaja World Heritage site in 2007 (Meegaskumbura et al., 2007). This species is listed as Globally Endangered (EN) by IUCN.
Rare, threatened and endemic birds
Criterion
(x)
Over 150 species of birds have been recorded in Sinharaja. A majority of the bird species endemic to Sri Lanka (33 species) occur in Sinharaja (> 30 species) (Bambaradeniya et al., 2006). An owl species new to science (Serendib Scops Owl – Otus thilohoffmanni) was discovered in the Sinharaja World Heritage site in 2004 (Warakagoda and Rasmussen, 2004). This species is listed as Globally Endangered (EN) by IUCN.
Rare, threatened and endemic reptiles
Criterion
(x)
A new canopy-dwelling species of colubrid snake (Dendrelaphis sinharajensis sp. nov.) was recently discovered in the Sinharaja World Heritage site, as well as a new species of the endemic scincid lizard (genus Lankascincus) (Wickramasinghe, 2016; Wickramasinghe et al., 2020). At present, a total of 36 reptile species have been identified in southern and eastern parts of the Sinharaja Forest Reserve of which 19 are endemic to Sri Lanka. Among them there are 5 vulnerable species, 4 endangered species and 5 critically endangered species recorded (Samarawickrama et al., 2019).
Rare, threatened and endemic freshwater fish
Criterion
(x)
Of the 19 species of freshwater fish inhabiting the streams and rivers in Sinharaja, 50% are endemic (Bambaradeniya et al., 2006).
Endemic Pteridophytes
Criterion
(x)
63 species of pteridophytes have been recorded in 0.36 ha of randomly placed sample plots in a single hill in Sinharaja, which includes 15 endemic species (Ranil et al., 2007). A new tree fern species (Cyathea srilankensis) was discovered in Sinharaja in 2010 (Ranil et al., 2010).
Rare and endemic plant species
Criterion
(x)
Protecting the last viable remnant of Sri Lanka’s tropical lowland rainforest, Sinharaja is home to at least 139 endemic plant species within two main types of forest: remnants of Dipterocarpus in the valleys and on the lower slopes, and secondary forest and scrub where the original forest cover has been removed. Sixteen of the endemic plant species within the site are considered rare, including endemic palms Loxococcus rupicola and Atalantia rotundifolia (World Heritage Committee, 2014). Among the Dipterocarpaceae – trees dominating the forest canopy in Sinhraja, endemism is greater than 90% (Gunatilleke and Gunatilleke, 1980; Gunatilleke et al., 1995; Gunatilleke et al., 2017).
Rare and endemic Orchids
Criterion
(x)
About 80 orchid species have been recorded in Sinharaja, of which 32 species are endemic (Rajeev and Vidanapathirana, 2012). In the last years, a new species in the family Orchidaceae (Gastrodia gunatillekeorum) was found in the lowland rainforest of Sinharaja (Bandara et al., 2020).
Rare, threatened and endemic amphibians
Criterion
(x)
The eastern corner of Sinharaja (e.g., Morningside area) is considered as a hotspot for endemic amphibians (Meegaskumbura et al., 2012). This small area harbors 10 Pseudophilautus species of which 5 are Critically Endangered (Ps. procax, Ps. papillosus, Ps. lunatus, Ps. simba and Ps. limbus), 4 are Endangered (Ps. poppiae, Ps. ocularis, Ps. auratus and Ps. decoris) and 1 is Data Deficient (Ps. regius).
The largest and relatively undisturbed remnant of Sri Lanka’s tropical lowland rain forest
Criterion
(ix)
Sinharaja Forest Reserve is the largest relatively undisturbed remnant of Sri Lanka's tropical lowland rainforest; over 60% of the trees are endemic and many of these are rare; and there are 21 endemic bird species as well as a number of rare insects, reptiles and amphibians. The site’s flora is a relic of Gondwanaland and provides an important component to our scientific understanding of continental drift and an outstanding site for the study of the processes of biological evolution (World Heritage Committee, 2014).
Assessment information
Sinharaja is currently facing many conservation issues that can be broadly classified under habitat destruction/degradation/fragmentation, over-exploitation of species, climate change impacts, and spread of invasive alien species. Specific actions are needed to address these existing threats especially given the potential impacts from climate change on both the habitat and the species found within the site.
Recreation & Tourism Areas
(Expansion of tourist hotels and guest houses )
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
Several tourist hotels and guest houses have been constructed around Sinharaja over the past decade, leading to adverse issues such as garbage, storm water runoff, increased water usage, pollution of waterways, forest clearance, and disturbance to wildlife (Chamikara, 2013; Rajeev and Vidanapathirana, 2012). Increased visitation during peak seasons is also driving this fragile ecosystem beyond its carrying capacity especially on the two most popular routes through Kudawa and Pitadeniya entry points (IUCN Consultation, 2020). While the COVID-19 pandemic related travel restrictions meant limited if any tourism to the site this is noted as rebounding with the opening of international borders. How tourism continues to expand at the site will need to be closely monitored to limit any further threats or impacts.
Utility & Service Lines
(Power lines )
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Outside site
Power lines associated with mini hydro power stations have led to forest clearance in strips (Chamikara, 2013; Rajeev and Vidanapathirana, 2012).
Hunting, Collecting & Controlling Terrestrial Animals, Logging, Harvesting & Controlling Trees
(Illegal logging and collection of species for trade)
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
Outside site
Illegal logging has previously been reported, especially in the northern region (Bambaradeniya et al., 2006; Chamikara, 2013; Rajeev and Vidanapathirana, 2012). The threat posed by continued illegal logging is significant although the current status and extent of this activity is unknown with a range of media outlets reporting large-scale deforestation (e.g. Gonsalkorale, 2021). With environmentalists along with villagers living in the buffer zones raising concerns about deforestation in forest reserves, Conservator General of Forests Nishantha Edirisinghe deployed a special team comprising 100 forest conservation officers to carry out a detailed investigation around the peripheral zone of the Sinharaja Forest in 2024. A three-day operation in the Sinharaja Forest Reserve area following an intelligence report that cited forest destruction and mineral smuggling activities reported that no damage had been caused to the forest reserve. However, the clearings had been made on privately-owned lands scheduled to be annexed to the Sinharaja Forest Reserve through Gazette No.2150/31 of 20 November 2019 (Hannan, 2024).
Fire & Fire Management
(Forest fires)
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Deliberate forest fires created by villagers for illegal hunting and/or clearance of forest have been observed in the north-eastern area of Sinharaja, which is a hotspot for endemic and threatened herpetofauna (Surasinghe, 2007). Furthermore, several forest fires were reported due to the dry spell across Sri Lanka in the first three months of 2024. According to the Department of Forest Conservation, approximately 55 hectares of forest cover was destroyed due to such fires (Hannan, 2024).
Mining & Quarrying
(Illegal gem mining in forest and its buffer zone areas, (including in streams and rivers) )
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
Outside site
Illegal gem mining has been noted as being carried out by organized gangs in a discrete manner inside the forest, leading to habitat degradation of forest and stream/river habitats (Bambaradeniya et al., 2006; Surasinghe, 2007; Gunatilleke, 2011; Chamikara, 2013). Current status of this activity is unknown but is likely to be continuing, as reports from environmental activists and villagers have reported mineral smuggling activities (Hannan, 2024).
Renewable Energy
(Mini-hydropower development projects )
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
Outside site
The construction of dams, weirs and ponds largely affects the hydrology and ecology of the streams and rivers they impounded (Bambaradeniya et al., 2006; Chamikara, 2013). These projects lead to i) alterations of the river flow, volume and velocity, ii) changes in the sediment transport and river channel processes, which increases erosion downstream of the dam, and iii) blocks the migration routes for many fish species (Geosrilanka, 2016; Rodrigo, 2016a, b; Rainforest protectors of Sri Lanka, 2019). Concerns have been particularly raised regarding the construction of the Koskulana mini-hydropower plant within the buffer zone of Sinharaja. Due to the low flow, the plant would only generate a very small amount of energy (0.6MW), but cause irreversible impacts on soil erosion, the ecosystem and its many endemic freshwater species (EJAtlas, 2017). No Environmental Impact Assessment has been undertaken and there has been accusations of bribes (Daily Mirror, 2016).
Residential Areas
(Construction of dwellings and village expansion )
Outside site
Expansion of villages is evident in the northern part of Sinharaja, resulting in the clearance of forest in the buffer zone as well as in the interior areas (Chamikara, 2013; Rajeev and Vidanapathirana, 2012).
Invasive / Other Problematic Species, Genes & Pathogens, Invasive Non-Native/ Alien Species
(Spread of invasive alien plants in degraded areas )
Invasive/problematic species
Alstonia macrophylla
Clidemia hirta
Psidium cattleianum
Clusia rosea
Other invasive species names
Sweitenia macrophylla, Wedelia trilobata, Lanatana camara, Tibouchina spp.
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
Outside site
Some species of woody plants (e.g. Sweitenia macrophylla, Alstonia macrophylla) that were introduced to Sinharaja for reforestation purposes are now spreading in an invasive manner in some areas of the forest. Herbaceous invasive alien plants, such as Wedelia trilobata, Clidemia hirta and Lanatana camara, have also established thick covers along disturbed areas (e.g. trails) in the forest (Bambaradeniya et al., 2006). In the eastern lower montane sector, Psidium cattleianum (strawberry guava) is spreading in the Morningside and Hadapanella areas, which are currently outside the Sinharaja World Heritage site boundary, but the potential of its invasion in to the site is high. Similarly, there is a likelihood of Tibouchina and Clusia rosea spreading in the eastern part. Overall, invasive alien species spread along anture trails and close to the site boundaries is of high concern (IUCN Consultation, 2024).
Roads, Trails & Railroads
(Road construction through forest )
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
Outside site
A number of proposed or ongoing road construction projects threatens the connectivity and therefore the viability of some species.
In June 2025, the Sri Lankan Court of Appeal granted permission for a petition to proceed, which challenged the legality of the Lankagama-Deniyaya Road expansion project that began in mid-2020, and which passes through the Sinharaja Forest Reserve (The Morning, 2025). The project involves expanding an 18km-long gravel road from Neluwa to Daniya, by widening its width from 8 feet to 15 feet and concreting the surface. Approximately 1.32 km of the road is reported to pass through the Sinharaja Forest Reserve, and involves felling of trees and the use of heavy machinery, causing disturbance to wildlife and further fragmenting the forest. The original gravel road also appears to be contested (Economy Next, 2020).
Road construction has been reported as one of the primary causes for the decline in elephant population, in addition to tea plantations and human-elephant conflicts (Arachchi et al., 2023). These threats have led to the reduction of what was over fifty individuals in the 1920s (Sri Lankan Tuskers, 2025), to the present two male individuals. Whilst the previously reported translocation of these two remaining individuals have been suspended (Hiru News, 2018), the viability of these individuals depend on restoring the ecological connectivity of the Sinharaja Forest Reserve with other protected area landscapes and addressing human-wildlife conflict.
In June 2025, the Sri Lankan Court of Appeal granted permission for a petition to proceed, which challenged the legality of the Lankagama-Deniyaya Road expansion project that began in mid-2020, and which passes through the Sinharaja Forest Reserve (The Morning, 2025). The project involves expanding an 18km-long gravel road from Neluwa to Daniya, by widening its width from 8 feet to 15 feet and concreting the surface. Approximately 1.32 km of the road is reported to pass through the Sinharaja Forest Reserve, and involves felling of trees and the use of heavy machinery, causing disturbance to wildlife and further fragmenting the forest. The original gravel road also appears to be contested (Economy Next, 2020).
Road construction has been reported as one of the primary causes for the decline in elephant population, in addition to tea plantations and human-elephant conflicts (Arachchi et al., 2023). These threats have led to the reduction of what was over fifty individuals in the 1920s (Sri Lankan Tuskers, 2025), to the present two male individuals. Whilst the previously reported translocation of these two remaining individuals have been suspended (Hiru News, 2018), the viability of these individuals depend on restoring the ecological connectivity of the Sinharaja Forest Reserve with other protected area landscapes and addressing human-wildlife conflict.
Recreational Activities
(Over-visitation resulting in erosion along certain forest trails )
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Outside site
The Mulavella hill trail has been heavily eroded due to over visitation, and similar effects are present along the Sinhagala trail. Some of the hotels and guest houses in and around Sinharaja have also established additional trails without the consent of the Forest Department (Bambaradeniya et al., 2003, 2006; Rajeev and Vidanapathirana, 2012).
Changes in Physical & Chemical Regimes, Changes in Temperature Regimes, Changes in Precipitation & Hydrological Regime
(Temperature increases, increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, changes to rainfall)
Inside site
, Widespread(15-50%)
Data on the current impact of climate change related threats is not currently available for the site. Nonetheless, impacts of climate change on species' compositions, ranges, seasonal cycles, habitat preferences, increased/decreased precipitation and extreme weather events have been detected (Samarasinghe et al., 2022). Changes to weather patterns and a higher frequency and intensity of natural disasters such as landslides, storms and droughts are increasingly likely to affect the site and reduced dry weather flow of streams in dry periods has been observed, even though the entire property is covered by dense rain forest vegetation (IUCN Consultation, 2024).
Monitoring for and assessment of climate change impacts is urgently needed with the information used to inform management actions used for the maintenance of biodiversity and to safeguard ecosystems. Monitoring needs to focus on and examines trends in the ecological status of the existing ecosystems and species in the area, particularly the numerous endemic species.
The site is particularly vulnerable due to a lack of connectivity of the area to other natural areas. In the longer term climate change is expected to cause a general shift of vegetation zones and species distributions. However, details of impacts on the biodiversity are limited and unavailable at the current time.
Monitoring for and assessment of climate change impacts is urgently needed with the information used to inform management actions used for the maintenance of biodiversity and to safeguard ecosystems. Monitoring needs to focus on and examines trends in the ecological status of the existing ecosystems and species in the area, particularly the numerous endemic species.
The site is particularly vulnerable due to a lack of connectivity of the area to other natural areas. In the longer term climate change is expected to cause a general shift of vegetation zones and species distributions. However, details of impacts on the biodiversity are limited and unavailable at the current time.
The population expansion in surrounding villages needs to be investigated as a matter of priority along with the potential threat from the construction associated with such population increases e.g. roads and communication towers.
Other Human Disturbances
(Population increase in surrounding villages )
Outside site
Expansion of village populations is evident mainly at the northern border of Sinharaja, leading to an increased pressure on land resources (Chamikara, 2013; Rajeev and Vidanapathirana, 2012). Expansion of villages increases potential for illegal hunting within the site while also impacting on wider natural resources such as water.
Utility & Service Lines
(Construction of communication towers )
Outside site
Several communication towers have already been established on hilltops bordering Sinharaja, resulting in adverse impacts on natural habitats due to construction of access roads, as well as loss of aesthetic value (Rajeev and Vidanapathirana, 2012). Current increases in such construction is unknown but likely to increase given the need for access to communication in communities neighbouring the site.
Involvement of stakeholders and rightsholders, including indigenous peoples and local communities, in decision-making processes
The Forest Department has maintained good relationships with local people through the implementation of collaborative programmes with “Sinharaja Sumithuro” - a local community-based organization. There is a great public respect and awareness of the values of the rainforest, especially among local people (IUCN Consultation, 2020). However, further work could be done to ensure stakeholders are better involved in decision making regarding the site and to increase benefits available to local communities through employment (IUCN Consultation, 2024).
Legal framework
The site is legally protected by National Heritage Wilderness are Act and Forest Conservation Ordinance. While the legal framework for protection of the site is largely sufficient, implementation of the existing legal framework to address serious conservation issues at Sinharaja is poor (Chamikara, 2013; Rajeev and Vidanapathirana, 2012). In order to reduce further fragmentation and land use change, the Forest Department has gazetted several forests along with Sinharaja World Heritage site, as 'Sinharaja Rain Forest Complex', thus almost quadrupling its original size (Rodrigo, 2019b). Enforcement of the legal framework is still needed to ensure impacts to the site are limited.
Governance arrangements
Sinharaja is administered by the Forest Department under the Ministry of Lands and Land Development, and governed principally by the National Heritage Wilderness Areas Act of 1998, with special powers for World Heritage protection (UNEP-WCMC, 2011). It is managed by three Divisional Forest Officers with their field staff, who manage the property under the guidance of the Senior Deputy Conservator of Forests (Environmental Management) at the Forest Department head office. There is coordination between the range of administrative bodies / levels involved in the management of the property but it could be improved. Overall the governance structures for the site appear to be adequate although as noted, coordination between the multiple government agencies could be improved.
Integration into local, regional and national planning systems (including sea/landscape connectivity)
Concerted efforts and actions to protect Sinharaja should be well integrated into local development plans to avoid adverse impacts related to development (Gunatillake, 2011; Chamikara, 2013; Rajeev and Vidanapathirana, 2012), although this is not always the case (Daily Mirror, 2016). However, with the co-operation of the private sector tea plantations, two important biological corridors were to be established, connecting Sinharaja forest with Walankanda and Delwala forest reserves (Finlays and Dilmah Conservation Projects) (Finlays 2019; Dilmah Conservation, 2019; Hapugastenna Plantations Ltd, 2020). The current status of the corridors is unknown and monitoring should be established to measure their effectiveness in connecting these areas.
Boundaries
Discrepancies related to boundary demarcation has led to illegal encroachments around Sinharaja (Gunatillake, 2011; Chamikara, 2013; Rajeev and Vidanapathirana, 2012). Progress has been made to survey the boundaries and maps have been prepared based on topographical coordinates recorded using GPS technology covering the entire Sinharaja ecosystem across the Rathnapura, Matara, Galle as well as Kalutara districts. 80% of the boundary is now demarcated with concrete posts (IUCN Consultation, 2024). Acquisition of forested lands belonging to the private sector and Land Reforming Commission within the boundary of Sinharaja Ecosystem had commenced (Sri Lanka Forest Department, 2018; IUCN Consultation, 2020) but progress on this is currently unknown. Forest reserves have been gazetted together with the Sinharaja World Heritage site as 'Sinharaja Rainforest Complex' (the Gazette signed by the Minister of Environment is now with the Legal Draftsman for final editing) (Rodrigo, 2019b; Cooray, 2019).
Overlapping international designations
Sinharaja was declared a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve, comprising the existing and proposed forest reserves in 1978 (UNEP-WCMC, 2011), prior to being added to the World Heritage list. The extent to which management is coordinated and effective for the overlapping areas is unclear.
Implementation of World Heritage Committee decisions and recommendations
The Committee decision 17COMX of 1993 recognized the fact that there are many incremental threats to the site, but the Committee noted that a Management Plan to address these had been completed. It was further noted that continued monitoring of the site should be implemented as a priority activity of the Plan. The committee decision specifically mentioned the need to monitor forest encroachment, but it appears that the management authority has not been able to address the issue of illegal encroachments in a satisfactory manner. No more recent decisions for the property were made.
Climate action
Little information is available in terms of protection and management actions in response to climate change impacts within the site. The threats posed by climate change, including changes in rainfall, increases in extreme weather events, potential reduction in water availability through prolonged drought periods (IUCN Consultation, 2024), and temperate extremes, are difficult to respond to from a management perspective. However, the impacts from these will only confound impacts from other threats, including human activities and management responses are urgently needed.
Strengthened management for climate change mitigation was identified as the first Strategic Theme in the 2022 Sinharaja Forest Range Landscape Management Plan (ESCAMP and MW&FRC, 2022). However, the extent to which this Theme has been implemented and actions taken is unclear.
Strengthened management for climate change mitigation was identified as the first Strategic Theme in the 2022 Sinharaja Forest Range Landscape Management Plan (ESCAMP and MW&FRC, 2022). However, the extent to which this Theme has been implemented and actions taken is unclear.
Management plan and overall management system
The management of the Sinharaja forest is vested with the Forest Department, which operates two main offices in the northern and southern areas. However, gaps in the management system are evident when considering the current threats in Sinharaja (Gunatillake, 2011; Chamikara, 2013; Rajeev and Vidanapathirana, 2012; Bambaradeniya et al., 2006; Forest Department, 2016).
Management plans for Sinharaja World Heritage site were updated and included in the National REDD+ Investment Framework and Action Plan (NRIFAP) and also in the World Bank funded Ecosystem Conservation and Management Plan (ESCAMP), which were implemented starting in 2017/18 for five years with funding pledged (ESCAMP, 2016; NRIFAP, 2017). In December 2019, a Ministerial level committee with five sub-committees was appointed to address all issues pertaining to the efficient management of World Heritage sites in Sri Lanka and while a number of management issues appear to have seen progress (e.g., demarcation of boundaries) others still require additional work (e.g. land encroachment).The Sinharaja Forest Range Landscape Management Plan came into force in 2022.
Management plans for Sinharaja World Heritage site were updated and included in the National REDD+ Investment Framework and Action Plan (NRIFAP) and also in the World Bank funded Ecosystem Conservation and Management Plan (ESCAMP), which were implemented starting in 2017/18 for five years with funding pledged (ESCAMP, 2016; NRIFAP, 2017). In December 2019, a Ministerial level committee with five sub-committees was appointed to address all issues pertaining to the efficient management of World Heritage sites in Sri Lanka and while a number of management issues appear to have seen progress (e.g., demarcation of boundaries) others still require additional work (e.g. land encroachment).The Sinharaja Forest Range Landscape Management Plan came into force in 2022.
Law enforcement
The buffer zone and adjoining forests in Sinharaja continue to face issues related to illegal encroachment and vegetation clearance due to poor protection/ poor enforcement of law and management (Chamikara, 2013; Rajeev and Vidanapathirana, 2012). Development of tourism facilities adjacent to the site also needs to be addressed through improved law enforcement and implementation of the legal framework for the area.
Sustainable finance
Financing conservation of Sinharaja has been improved recently through ESCAMP and NRIFAP projects (ESCAMP, 2016; NRIFAP, 2017). Funding support through ESCAMP has included an updated Management Plan of the Singharaja Forest Range Landscape including the World Heritage site (ESCAMP and MW & FRC, 2022) which includes strengthened sustainable management of forest plantations in the Singharaja Forest Range Landscape but does not address the issue of financing. Ongoing financing will also need to be addressed to ensure consistent management efforts.
Staff capacity, training and development
The Forest Department staff stationed in Sinharaja, and members of the ‘Sinharaja Sumithrayo’, regularly participate in various training programmes provided through universities, research institutions, and NGOs in Sri Lanka. A training program on forest landscape restoration was conducted for all field level forest officers of the Forest Department in February 2016 in collaboration with the University of Peradeniya and the Sri Lanka Forestry Institute. The 2022 Management Plan for the wider Forest Landscape highlights the need to address capacity gaps and includes a Strategic Objective focussed on reducing threats to forests through enhanced law enforcement as well as enhancing capacity to address threats from climate change. The extent to which this need has been addressed is unclear and capacity building efforts will need to continue to ensure staff skills are maintained and updated given the range of threats facing the site. Generally the staff are well trained and effectively deployed for protection and management (IUCN Consultation, 2024).
Education and interpretation programmes
Sinharaja has been well integrated into the school curriculum and university degree programmes. The management authority as well as several NGOs conduct education and awareness programmes on Sinharaja (Bambaradeniya et al., 2006). Several national and international training programmes are being conducted in and around Sinharaja. The Overseas School of Colombo regularly takes students to Sinharaja on field courses (Lockwood, 2019). The Sri Lanka Program for Forest Conservation (SLPFC), a Yale-based project, launched a postgraduate fellowship program in 2017 that provides practical and professional development experience in tropical forest conservation based in Sinharaja, mostly on village-forest interactions and their sustainability values (SLPFC, 2016). The Sinharaja Forest Landscape Management Plan specifically identifies the provision of a world-class education and awareness experience to visitors of the World Heritage Site as a a Strategic sub-objective, indicating the commitment of the management agency to this issue (ESCAMP and MW & FRC, 2022).
Tourism and visitation management
There is a visitor center at the Kudawa entrance in the north of the site. The IUCN Sri Lanka office produced a general guide to the biodiversity of Sinharaja, including trail guides (Bambaradeniya et al., 2006). Several other NGOs/individuals have published guides on Sinharaja. Both positive and negative impacts of tourism in Sinharaja have been examined (Kumara, 2016), in particular in estimating visitor pressure during peak visitation periods and impacts linked to biopiracy. Recommendations have been made to alleviate the visitor pressure in order to support efforts to not move beyond carrying capacity at peak times (Liyanage et al., 2018). A nature based tourism plan for the Sinharaja Forest Complex was prepared under the ESCAMP Project. This plan provides a comprehensive set of strategic objectives and subsequent actions for developing tourism (ESCAMP, 2018). Further work is needed to ensure enforcement of regulations, especially noting the increase in tourism related development around the site and the link to increased encroachment.
Sustainable use
There is very little data and information available to verify aspects related to sustainable use within the site. In 2018 the Environmental Foundation Ltd. (EFL) published a review of the southern border of Sinharaja (ELF, 2018). The publication evaluated the status of Sinharaja World Heritage site, through an assessment of the discrepancy between conservation laws and their implementation through management plans and proposed recommendations for sustainable management of a buffer zone that would balance contemporary development threats while defending the conservation status granted by UNESCO via natural World Heritage sites and Biosphere Reserves (EFL, 2018). While the Sinharaja Forest Landscape Management Plan, 2022 (ESCAMP and MW&FRC, 2022) recognised the need for integrated land use to achieve conservation and sustainable development goals it is unclear whether the actions have been implemented and how they apply specifically to the World Heritage site.
Monitoring
Monitoring of conservation issues in Sinharaja is inadequate (Gunatillake, 2011; Chamikara, 2013). The need for monitoring of biodiversity values in the site has been noted in the Sinharaja Forest Landscape Management Plan (ESCAMP and MW&FRC, 2022) but the status of any monitoring is unclear. This will be particularly important as the impacts of climate change are likely to increase and to ensure early detection of changes in habitat and species populations.
Research
The Center for Tropical Forest Science - Forest Global Earth Observatory (CTFS-ForestGEO) is a global network of forest research plots and scientists dedicated to the study of tropical and temperate forest function and diversity. A 25 ha Forest Dynamics Plot is part of the CTFS-ForestGEO network and a restoration ecology programme (Ashton et al., 2014a, b; CTFS-ForestGEO; Ediriweera, 2017; Gunatilleke et al., 2004). This plot was surveyed for the fifth time during 2018 and 2019 and has been featuring in a number of international publications on inter-site comparisons and trend analyses (CTFS-ForestGEO). It is unclear if the plot has been surveyed since 2019.
Sinharaja is a crucial global centre for forest ecological and biogeographical research, owing to the fact that it contains the best remaining example of the lowland forest that evolved on the Indian island in the late Cretaceous era, as it separated from Madagascar and moved north-east along the East-African cost (IUCN Consultation, 2020).
Sinharaja is a crucial global centre for forest ecological and biogeographical research, owing to the fact that it contains the best remaining example of the lowland forest that evolved on the Indian island in the late Cretaceous era, as it separated from Madagascar and moved north-east along the East-African cost (IUCN Consultation, 2020).
Effectiveness of management system and governance in addressing threats outside the site
The buffer zone and adjoining forests in Sinharaja are currently facing major issues related to illegal encroachment and vegetation clearance due to poor protection/ poor enforcement of law and management (Chamikara, 2013; Rajeev and Vidanapathirana, 2012). Although some measures have been taken, such as the development of i) the 'Sinharaja Rain Forest Complex', ii) a ministerial committee to address the issues of natural World Heritage sites including Sinharaja, and iii) a project proposal for management of Sinharaja (ESCAMP, 2018), some concerns still remain. Increased development related to tourism adjacent to the site will also pose threats through increased water extraction and the need to deal with waste, aside from the direct impacts resulting from increased visitation.
Effectiveness of management system and governance in addressing threats inside the site
While the management system and governance is more effective addressing threats inside the side compared to those outside the site, the threats remain significant and further improvements are needed to address conservation issues and ensure the values of the site remain. Threats from illegal hunting and logging remain, with increased pressure likely given the increasing interest in species found within the side in international trade. Improvements in law enforcement are urgently needed along with the establishment of monitoring of species and habitats to detect and respond to climate change impacts.
The site is legally protected by National Heritage Wilderness are Act and Forest Conservation Ordinance, however enforcement of legislation to conserve Sinharaja needs significant improvement to address conservation issues, halt further fragmentation and avoid adverse impacts from infrastructure, encroachment, climate change, and hydropower development. While the Sinharaja Forest Landscape Management Plan, 2022 recognised the need for integrated land use to achieve conservation and sustainable development goals it is unclear whether the actions have been implemented and how they apply specifically to the World Heritage site. The boundary of the existing World Heritage site needs to be clearly defined, and options to expand the extent of the site to conserve remaining primary rainforest patches in the adjoining areas need to be considered, along with the demarcation of a clear and complete buffer zone. Some of these concerns were expected to be addressed through two projects - National REDD+ Investment Framework and Action Plan and the World Bank funded Ecosystem Conservation and Management Plan. However, whether this has been successful is currently unclear. A long-term research plot was successfully established to document the temporal and spatial dynamics of the ecology of Sinharaja, including its fauna and flora, but updated monitoring of the plot is needed along with the establishment of monitoring programmes for key species to help detect impacts from climate change.
Good practice examples
• A Forest Dynamics Plot (500m x 500m) established in 1993 to study the temporal and spatial dynamics in a tropical rainforest, and species richness and diversity of fauna and flora;
• Empowerment of local community based organizations (the network of ‘Sinharaja Sumithrayo’) in Sinharaja.
• A model ecotourism resort - 'The Rainforest Ecolodge' established in the SE perimeter of Sinharaja WHS in Enselwatta Estate in Deniyaya has been awarded several international green awards for ecotourism hotels (Abstract presented at ATBC-AP 2019 by Rainforest Ecolodge (Pvt.) Ltd.).
• Empowerment of local community based organizations (the network of ‘Sinharaja Sumithrayo’) in Sinharaja.
• A model ecotourism resort - 'The Rainforest Ecolodge' established in the SE perimeter of Sinharaja WHS in Enselwatta Estate in Deniyaya has been awarded several international green awards for ecotourism hotels (Abstract presented at ATBC-AP 2019 by Rainforest Ecolodge (Pvt.) Ltd.).
Rare, threatened and endemic invertebrate species
High Concern
Trend
Improving
Studies have found that overall topographical changes, and the associated shifts in vegetation structure at ground level from valley bottom to ridge top, can significantly alter ant species composition (Gunawardene, 2012). Another threat to endemic invertebrate species is the illegal trade and wildlife smuggling. In February 2019, five people were caught possessing a large variety of animal and plant species from Sinharaja, including butterflies and their cocoons, beetles, spiders and their eggs, grasshoppers and scorpions (Masakorala, 2020).
Although further studies to gather data to assess the status of endemic invertebrates are needed, there is some ongoing progress. A series of books including pocket/field guides on butterflies, dragonflies, damselflies and spiders of Sri Lanka, as well as maps of their habitats and distribution within Sri Lanka have been published, some with corporate sponsorship. The National Red List 2012 of Sri Lanka provides the taxonomy and conservation status of most invertebrate species (MOE, 2012).
Although further studies to gather data to assess the status of endemic invertebrates are needed, there is some ongoing progress. A series of books including pocket/field guides on butterflies, dragonflies, damselflies and spiders of Sri Lanka, as well as maps of their habitats and distribution within Sri Lanka have been published, some with corporate sponsorship. The National Red List 2012 of Sri Lanka provides the taxonomy and conservation status of most invertebrate species (MOE, 2012).
Rare, threatened and endemic mammals
High Concern
Trend
Stable
Research indicates adverse impacts on the ecology and distribution of endemic small mammals in Sinharaja due to logging activities carried out prior to the inscription of the site as a World Heritage (Wijesinghe and de Brooke, 2005). However, these areas have recovered well over the past two decades, providing stable conditions to endemic mammals. Sri Lanka has increasingly been impacted by illegal trade in many species, with many reports of reptiles and amphibians being traded, but also of elephants. Increasing threats from habitat loss and fragmentation, human encroachment and road construction are impacting the viability of the remaining two individual elephants remaining within the Sinharaja Forest Reserve.
Rare, threatened and endemic birds
Low Concern
Trend
Stable
Observations carried out by the Ceylon Birds Club (CBS) and the Field Ornithology Group (FOG) indicates that the populations of endemic avifauna in Sinharaja are stable.
Rare, threatened and endemic reptiles
High Concern
Trend
Deteriorating
Similar to amphibians, several new species of tetrapod reptiles have been recorded from Sinharaja since its declaration as a World Heritage site. However, further studies are needed to assess the current status of reptiles in Sinharaja.
There are many threats to reptiles in Sinharaja, among them are issues of bio piracy, loss of forest genetic resources and wildlife smuggling for trade, illegal forest utilisation practices, hydropower constructions, gem mining, illegal forest encroachments and unsustainable tourism practices (Rodrigo, 2019a; Samarawickrama et al., 2019). Smuggling of the spotted bowfinger gecko (Cyrtodactylus triedra) and other reptiles have become profitable in Kudawa-Sinharaja site and a growing number of bio-pirates venture into the forest to illegally gather the species (Kumara, 2016; Masakorala, 2020).
There are many threats to reptiles in Sinharaja, among them are issues of bio piracy, loss of forest genetic resources and wildlife smuggling for trade, illegal forest utilisation practices, hydropower constructions, gem mining, illegal forest encroachments and unsustainable tourism practices (Rodrigo, 2019a; Samarawickrama et al., 2019). Smuggling of the spotted bowfinger gecko (Cyrtodactylus triedra) and other reptiles have become profitable in Kudawa-Sinharaja site and a growing number of bio-pirates venture into the forest to illegally gather the species (Kumara, 2016; Masakorala, 2020).
Rare, threatened and endemic freshwater fish
Data Deficient
Trend
Data Deficient
The diversity and ecology of freshwater fish in the streams of Sinharaja have not been adequately researched. However, the construction of dams and weirs, illegal road construction activities, as well as pollution from agrochemicals are negatively affecting the stream ecology of Sinharaja (Bambaradeniya et al., 2006; Surasinghe, 2007; Rajeev and Vidanapathirana, 2012; Chamikara, 2013) and as such will also have a negative impact on the freshwater fish found in the site.
Endemic Pteridophytes
Data Deficient
Trend
Data Deficient
The site harbours many endemic species of Pteridophytes, and several new species of ferns have also been recorded from the site since its inscription as a World Heritage. However, the current data is insufficient to assess trends related to the ecology of Pteidophytes in Sinharaja.
Rare and endemic plant species
Low Concern
Trend
Stable
The endemicity among trees species of Sinharaja is high, where in some families (e.g. Dipterocarpaceae) endemism is greater than 90%. Research data on the ecology of tree flora indicates stable conditions (Gunatilleke and Gunatilleke, 1980; Gunatilleke et al., 1995; Gunatilleke et al., 2004).
A long-term (over 40 years) growth study across an elevation gradient has been conducted in Sinharaja World Heritage site. Dipterocarps and members of Clusiaceae increased in dominance with succession (time), with topography (ridges greater than valleys) and with elevation (lowland < hill < lower montane) (Ediriweera, 2020). However, forest clearance and illegal collection are posing some threats to endemic plant species (Gunatilleke, 2011; Kumara, 2016; Rodrigo, 2019c).
A long-term (over 40 years) growth study across an elevation gradient has been conducted in Sinharaja World Heritage site. Dipterocarps and members of Clusiaceae increased in dominance with succession (time), with topography (ridges greater than valleys) and with elevation (lowland < hill < lower montane) (Ediriweera, 2020). However, forest clearance and illegal collection are posing some threats to endemic plant species (Gunatilleke, 2011; Kumara, 2016; Rodrigo, 2019c).
Rare and endemic Orchids
Data Deficient
Trend
Data Deficient
The site harbours many endemic species of orchids, and several new orchid species have also been recorded from the site since its inscription as a World Heritage (Bandara et al., 2020). Current data is insufficient to assess trends related to the ecology of the orchid flora in Sinharaja, however, illegal collection of orchids have been documented (Kumara, 2016).
Rare, threatened and endemic amphibians
High Concern
Trend
Deteriorating
Several new species of amphibians have been discovered from Sinharaja, including point endemics restricted to the eastern Sinharaja region. This area is currently under threat due to many adverse anthropogenic activities, which could threaten the survival of these sensitive species (Meegaskumbura et al., 2012; Surasinghe, 2007). A 2020 global IUCN Red List assessment of the amphibians of Sri Lanka highlighted that 72 out of a total of 116 are threatened with extinction, with 20 critically endangered (Rodrigo, 2020b).
The largest and relatively undisturbed remnant of Sri Lanka’s tropical lowland rain forest
Low Concern
Trend
Improving
Research indicates a gradual regeneration of forest in areas subjected to logging in the 1970s, with an increase in primary forest vegetation. However, it is difficult to predict trends for most taxonomical groups, due to inadequate baseline data and continuous monitoring.
A CTFS plot network-wide study (including Sinharaja), surveyed over five times since 1995, has shown that the shifts in forest dynamics are already occurring, and the emerging pattern is that global forests are tending toward younger stands with faster turnover as old-growth forest with stable dynamics are dwindling (McDowell et al., 2020).
In addition, forest fires, forest clearance for power lines and encroachment of forest for tea and cardamom cultivation is a concern, especially in the northern areas of Sinharaja, resulting in the loss of forest cover and degradation of habitats (Bambaradeniya et al., 2006; Surasinghe, 2007; Gunatilleke, 2011; Rajeev and Vidanapathirana, 2012; Chamikara, 2013; Samarawickrama et al., 2019).
A CTFS plot network-wide study (including Sinharaja), surveyed over five times since 1995, has shown that the shifts in forest dynamics are already occurring, and the emerging pattern is that global forests are tending toward younger stands with faster turnover as old-growth forest with stable dynamics are dwindling (McDowell et al., 2020).
In addition, forest fires, forest clearance for power lines and encroachment of forest for tea and cardamom cultivation is a concern, especially in the northern areas of Sinharaja, resulting in the loss of forest cover and degradation of habitats (Bambaradeniya et al., 2006; Surasinghe, 2007; Gunatilleke, 2011; Rajeev and Vidanapathirana, 2012; Chamikara, 2013; Samarawickrama et al., 2019).
Assessment of the current state and trend of World Heritage values
Data Deficient
Since the inscription of Sinharaja on the World Heritage list in 1988, many species of plants and animals new to science have been discovered in the site as a result of a significant increase in research work over the past three decades. However, assessments and publications have also highlighted particular concern regarding threats to amphibians and reptiles within the site. Current data remains insufficient to assess trends related to the ecology of many species of flora and fauna in Sinharaja and more consistent monitoring data for species and overall habitat is needed to help identify trends. Forest research indicates a gradual regeneration in areas subjected to logging in the 1970s, with an increase in primary forest vegetation. Although it is difficult to predict trends for most taxonomical groups due to inadequate baseline data and monitoring, some concerns remain regarding the impacts of development, encroachment, forest fires, vegetation clearance and illegal trade on the Sinharaja ecosystem and its species. These concerns will only be compounded by the current and future impacts from climate change.
Additional information
Access to drinking water
Non commercial: All villages around the Sinharaja forest are dependent on the streams, rivers and groundwater resources sustained by the forest for drinking water and water for their day-to-day uses.
Commercial wells
Commercial: Several mini-hydropower plants located around Sinharaja are sustained from streams and rivers originating from this forest.
When part of a stream is diverted for power generation, the habitat downstream over a certain distance changes and fish will be affected even though a percentage of water might be allowed to flow freely. With flow changes, the sediment transport, erosion rate and the pH value of water could also change and very sensitive species could become affected. Some fish migrate upstream to breed and when the stream is blocked this movement is disrupted. During the dry season, little or no water is released as environmental flow in to the stream, causing deaths of aquatic biota.
When part of a stream is diverted for power generation, the habitat downstream over a certain distance changes and fish will be affected even though a percentage of water might be allowed to flow freely. With flow changes, the sediment transport, erosion rate and the pH value of water could also change and very sensitive species could become affected. Some fish migrate upstream to breed and when the stream is blocked this movement is disrupted. During the dry season, little or no water is released as environmental flow in to the stream, causing deaths of aquatic biota.
Outdoor recreation and tourism
Sinharaja is a popular ecotourism destination among local and foreign tourists.
Unplanned and unauthorized building of tourist lodges near waterways along the perimeter of the forest is affecting negatively on the forest by enhanced pollution of waterways and by some form of cultural pollution, as well.
Increased visitation during peak seasons is driving this fragile ecosystem beyond its carrying capacity especially on the two most popular routes through Kudawa and Pitadeniya entry points.
Unplanned and unauthorized building of tourist lodges near waterways along the perimeter of the forest is affecting negatively on the forest by enhanced pollution of waterways and by some form of cultural pollution, as well.
Increased visitation during peak seasons is driving this fragile ecosystem beyond its carrying capacity especially on the two most popular routes through Kudawa and Pitadeniya entry points.
1. https://www.escamp.lk/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/ESCAMP-RATHNAPURA-SINHARAJA-3b-01_Proposal-2.pdf
2. http://www.escamp.lk/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/3a-Matara-Sinharaja-1.pdf
2. http://www.escamp.lk/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/3a-Matara-Sinharaja-1.pdf
Importance for research,
Contribution to education
Resource for building knowledge and education: Taxonomic, biogeographical and exploratory research in Sinharaja over the past three decades has contributed to the discovery of many plants and animals that are new to science and also how this diversity is maintained (LaManna, 2017; Bandara et al., 2020). Research on forest restoration has generated a wealth of knowledge on regeneration of tropical rainforests (Ediriweera et al., 2020).
Carbon sequestration,
Soil stabilisation,
Pollination
Sinharaja contributes to sustain an array of environmental services, including the regulation of local climate, soil conservation, generate and sustain quality freshwater, and sustain natural pollinators.
Collection of timber, e.g. fuelwood
Rattan is extracted from the buffer zone areas for local livelihoods. Collection of medicinal plants as well as those yielding fragrant resins of high value (Gyrinops sp.) is on the increase thus decimating the natural populations in and around Sinharaja World Heritage site.
1. https://www.sjp.ac.lk/research/walla-patta-gyrinops-walla-for-agarwood-production/
2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2015.01.060
3. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-10-0833-7_6
2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2015.01.060
3. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-10-0833-7_6
Sinharaja has immense global value in relation to biodiversity conservation, as it harbors many species of animals and plants that are restricted (point endemics) to this forest. The villages surrounding Sinharaja benefit from an array of environmental services from Sinharaja including provision of habitat for pollinators, watershed values and carbon sequestration. It provides employment opportunities for local community members through provision of services for visitors.
Members of the local village youth (male and female) who assist researchers in their field studies in Sinharaja over the years have also been employed by the Forest Department as visitor-guides and this has been a very successful project both for the visitors and the guides. Booster programs to increase the guides' knowledge on Sinharaja and its biota have been conducted by the Forest Department with assistance from researchers.
Members of the local village youth (male and female) who assist researchers in their field studies in Sinharaja over the years have also been employed by the Forest Department as visitor-guides and this has been a very successful project both for the visitors and the guides. Booster programs to increase the guides' knowledge on Sinharaja and its biota have been conducted by the Forest Department with assistance from researchers.
| № | Organization | Brief description of Active Projects | Website |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Herpetological Foundation of Sri Lanka (HFS) | Research on new species of amphibians and reptiles in Sinharaja World Heritage site | |
| 2 | Center for Applied Biodiversity Research and Education (CABRE) | Research on orchids in Sinharaja | |
| 3 | Ceylon Bird Club (CBC) | Annual monitoring of avifauna in Sinharaja, including | |
| 4 | Field Ornithology Group (FOG) | Mixed-species foraging bird flocks in Sinharaja |
University of Colombo
|
| 5 | Madhava Meegaskumbura | Monitoring of amphibians in eastern Sinharaja, Morningside (long-term study) |
Department of Zoology, University of Peradeniya Web: http://web.mac.com/madhavameegaskumbura
|
| 6 | University of Uva Wellassa, Badulla, Sri Lanka | Restoration of forest in buffer zones (long-term study initiated in 1990) and Sinharaja Forest Dynamics Plot for monitoring changes in plant diversity over time. |
https://forestgeo.si.edu/ediriweera
|
| 7 | Ministry of Wildlife and Forest Resources Conservation; World Bank | The World Bank has extended a credit to the Government of Sri Lanka (GOSL) for the Ecosystem Conservation and Management Project (ESCAMP) from 2017 to 2022. The objective of this project is to improve the management of sensitive ecosystems in selected locations for conservation and community benefits. The Ministry of Wildlife and Forest Conservation (MW&FC) executes the project through a Project Management Unit (PMU). |
https://www.mwfc.gov.lk/escamp/
|
| 8 | Ministry of Mahaweli Development and Environment | The Government of Sri Lanka (GoSL) is committed to achieving a sustainable development pathway that delivers broad based economic growth while also contributing to the global fight against climate change. As part of this approach, and with support from the UN-REDD Programme1 the GoSL has been working, since 2012, to build capacity for and develop a comprehensive approach to reducing Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions from the country’s forests as well as increasing their capacity for GHG absorption. This approach will form part of Sri Lanka’s efforts under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Paris Agreement. |
https://www.un-redd.org/sites/default/files/2021-10/NRIFAP%202018-2022_English_chapter_1_5%20%28961894%29.pdf
|
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