Gunung Mulu National Park
Country
Malaysia
Inscribed in
2000
Criteria
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)
(x)
The conservation outlook for this site has been assessed as "good with some concerns" in the latest assessment cycle. Explore the Conservation Outlook Assessment for the site below. You have the option to access the summary, or the detailed assessment.
Important both for its high biodiversity and for its karst features, Gunung Mulu National Park, on the island of Borneo in the State of Sarawak, is the most studied tropical karst area in the world. The 52,864-ha park contains seventeen vegetation zones, exhibiting some 3,500 species of vascular plants. Its palm species are exceptionally rich, with 109 species in twenty genera noted. The park is dominated by Gunung Mulu, a 2,377 m-high sandstone pinnacle. At least 295 km of explored caves provide a spectacular sight and are home to millions of cave swiftlets and bats. The Sarawak Chamber, 600 m by 415 m and 80 m high, is the largest known cave chamber in the world. © UNESCO
Summary
2025 Conservation Outlook
Finalised on
11 Oct 2025
Good with some concerns
Current state and trend of VALUES
Low Concern
Overall THREATS
Overall PROTECTION and MANAGEMENT
Full assessment
Description of values
Spectacular caves
Criterion
(vii)
Sarawak Chamber, one of the largest cave chambers in the world, stretches 600 m in length by 415 m wide and 80 m high. Deer Cave at 120 to 150 m in diameter is the largest cave passage in the world known at the time of inscription and the Clearwater Cave System holds the world record as the longest cave in Asia at 110 km of mapped and explored passages (238 km as of 2020). The caves contain fine examples of tropical river caves, flood incuts, vadose, and phreatic caves, exhibiting fine examples of all types of speleothems (structures formed in a cave by the deposition of minerals from water) (World Heritage Committee, 2012).
Exceptional natural beauty and an outstanding wildlife spectacle
Criterion
(vii)
Gunung Mulu National Park is an area of exceptional natural beauty, with striking primary forest, karst terrain, mountains, waterfalls and some of the largest caves on earth (World Heritage Committee, 2012). The daily exit en masse of millions of bats and swiftlets from Deer Cave is an outstanding natural phenomenon; a superlative wildlife spectacle and likely the most outstanding readily accessible example of its kind. Visitors to the park view the phenomenon daily.
Outstanding example of cave geomorphology
Criterion
(viii)
The park is an outstanding example of major changes in the earth’s history. Major uplift that occurred during the late Pliocene to Pleistocene is well represented in the more than 526.7 km (as of 2020) of explored caves as a series of major cave levels. The surface and underground geomorphology and hydrology reveal significant information on the tectonic and climatic evolution of Borneo. The sequence of terrestrial alluvial deposits provides an important record of glacial – interglacial cycles with the series of uplifted caves ranging from 28 m to over 300 m above sea level are at least 2 to 3 million years old, indicating uplift rates of about 19 cm per 1,000 years. This exceptionally long period makes the caves a valuable data source on geo-climatic fluctuations during the Pleistocene (World Heritage Committee, 2012).
Cave ecology (troglobite and stygobite evolution)
Criterion
(ix)
The property provides significant scientific opportunities to study theories on the origins of cave fauna with over 200 species recorded, including many troglobitic and troglomorphic species and it displays outstanding examples of ongoing ecological and biological processes. (Moulds et. al, 2014). Seventeen vegetation zones have been identified along with their diverse associated fauna. Some 3,500 species of plants, 1,700 mosses and liverworts and over 4,000 species of fungi have been recorded within the property. At the time of inscription, there were known to be 20,000 species of invertebrates, 81 species of mammals, 270 species of birds, 55 species of reptiles, 76 species of amphibians and 48 species of fish (World Heritage Committee, 2012). Subsequent studies and research have increased these numbers.The food webs of Mulu's caves and the large-scale transfer of food energy from forest to caves by bats and swiftlets is an exceptionally well-studied process here. Many of Mulu's troglobites (underground invertebrates) belong to very ancient groups that have largely disappeared from the modern land surface and are now represented by a few widely scattered species.
One of the richest assemblages of flora biota
Criterion
(x)
The property supports one of the richest assemblages of flora biota to be found in any area of comparable size in the world. It is botanically-rich in species and high in endemism, including one of the richest sites in the world for palm species and contains outstanding natural habitats for in-situ conservation for a large number of species. Seventeen vegetation zones have been identified along with their diverse associated fauna. Some 3,500 species of plants, 1,700 mosses and liverworts and over 4,000 species of fungi have been recorded within the property (World Heritage Committee, 2012).
One of the richest assemblages of fauna biota
Criterion
(x)
Deer Cave alone has one of the largest colonies of free tailed bats (Chaerephon plicata) in the world (over 3 million). This one cave also has the largest number (12) of different species of bats to be found in a single cave. Several million cave swiftlets (Aerodramus sp.) have been recorded from one cave system, constituting the largest colony in the world. Many species of fauna are endemic and 41 species are included on the endangered species list (World Heritage Committee, 2012).
Penan management of the Gunung Mulu NAtional Park ecosystem
As inhabitants of the forests of the Gunung Mulu National Park (GMNP) World Heritage site since time immemorial, the traditionally nomadic Penan people have played a key role in supporting the ecological integrity of the GMNP ecosystem, and though now mostly settled, they continue to play a role. Their traditional pattern of nomadism is the embodiment of a conscious and deliberate strategy of management of sago (Eugesissona utilis) and other forest resources by Penan. Penan possess detailed knowledge of landscape, embodied in both a rich vocabulary for describing landscape and a remarkable depth of knowledge of particular river systems and the resources to be found in those watersheds. Furthermore, Penan possess a sophisticated system of resource management that is designed to ensure the long-term availability of sago and other forest resources: fruit trees of numerous species, tajem trees for blowdart poison, salt-licks (sungan), and other resources. Finally, Penan retain the memory of innumerable sites of past occupation within GMNP dating back many generations and linked to specific ancestors. The foundation for Penan management of the Gunung Mulu ecosystem is a set of three interlinked concepts and practices that provide conceptual coherence to their system of resource management: Tana’ pengurip refers to the area that any given Penan group or community regards as its rightful domain or territory, over which it exercises stewardship in order to preserve resources in perpetuity; Mihau is an ethical principle, meaning to protect, preserve, or care for. The mihau principle mandates that people should take from the forest only what they need, and that they must respect creation by not overexploiting resources; Molong refers to a set of practices that guide Penan use of resources. The term signifies that a specific resource has been marked and claimed by an individual, but rather than signifying ownership, it represents a claim to exercising stewardship over the resource so as to maintain it in perpetuity for the community (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
Indigenous Berawan/Tring
The Berawan/Tring community also have land claims and land rights in the area, however, less is publicly known about their history due to a lack of archival research and ethnographic research in the public domain. Nevertheless, the role of the Berawan/Tring Indigenous people is highly valuable for the maintenance of the site's values and integrity and the community holds a deep connection to the area.
Assessment information
Much of the property is well protected by it's very rugged terrain; there are no roads within the property and it has not been subject to commercial logging. Only a small selection of caves is open to the public and infrastructure provided for the number of tourists that currently visit the park is adequate. Extensive illegal hunting and a rapidly increasing population adjacent to the property's western boundary present high current threats to the property. Nearby forestry and oil palm developments, an invasive alien plant species, river siltation and the lack of waste management facilities and systems present low current threats. There is no management capacity to address the illegal hunting within the property. Transparent monitoring and planning arrangements could help give confidence on this front but there is no effective monitoring in place as of 2025. The property has significant interfaces with other land-uses that can bring degradation and undesirable access to its fringes.
Hunting, Collecting & Controlling Terrestrial Animals
(Traditional hunting)
Inside site
, Widespread(15-50%)
Outside site
The communities from various longhouses adjacent to the property’s boundary all have the privilege to hunt Wild Boar and deer within prescribed areas of the property, however they hunt anything edible or saleable and they hunt everywhere within the property (Ibrahim et. al, 2023a and b). A requirement for hunting privileges to be monitored by the Park Warden is not implemented or enforced (Ibrahim et. al, 2023a and b; IUCN Consultation, 2025a).
The 2019 arrival of African Swine Flu has destroyed the Wild Boar population and greatly exacerbated the targeting of protected species. The illegal hunting situation is increased due to the rapid growth of the population (a 50%+ increase from 2020 to 2024) through migration to the Batu Bungan and Melinau Villages and illegal entries from other parts of Sarawak or from foreign countries. These new arrivals do not have traditional hunting privileges but are hunting throughout the park. No attempt is made to control the hunting (IUCN Consultation 2025a).
The 2019 arrival of African Swine Flu has destroyed the Wild Boar population and greatly exacerbated the targeting of protected species. The illegal hunting situation is increased due to the rapid growth of the population (a 50%+ increase from 2020 to 2024) through migration to the Batu Bungan and Melinau Villages and illegal entries from other parts of Sarawak or from foreign countries. These new arrivals do not have traditional hunting privileges but are hunting throughout the park. No attempt is made to control the hunting (IUCN Consultation 2025a).
Logging, Harvesting & Controlling Trees
(On-going wood production adjacent to park)
Outside site
Areas of forest surrounding the property have been heavily cut, with complex road networks and logged areas up to the rivers that demark much of the boundary of the property. The access provided to the property's perimeter brings the threat of unauthorised entry and associated illegal hunting and collection of biological resources, an ongoing threat to the property's integrity and natural values (World Heritage Committee, 2012). Further discussion of this threat occurs below.
Annual & Perennial Non-Timber Crops, Wood & Pulp Plantations
(Forest clearance for oil palm plantation)
Outside site
A dispute between the local community and an oil palm plantation developer over the development of land adjacent to the Gunung Mulu National Park Extension 1, which is considered to be an important wildlife corridor between the property and the forests of Brunei, and an important feeding area for the bats from Deer Cave, was resolved by the 15 June 2020 announcement that the area will now added to GMNP (IUCN Consultation, 2020b). It is unknown what progress has been made in achieving this and it is vitally important that the local community are consulted in the process such that a system of sustainable hunting is established. (IUCN Consultation 2025a and b).
Other Human Disturbances
(River siltation and bank erosion)
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Outside site
During the Covid-19 pandemic some 20 members of the Batu Bungan village established themselves closer to their preferred hunting grounds a few kilometers to the north of the village and within Extension 1 of Gunung Mulu National Park, adjacent to the property but separated by the Melinau River. (Hunting of non-protected species is allowed for the semi-nomadic Penan Community in the Mulu according to the National Parks and Nature Reserves Ordinance for the Gunung Mulu National Park, 1998 (Extension 1, 2012). In establishing individual shelters, they also cleared extensive areas of forest to establish agricultural activities. The forest has been cleared right to riverbank, which is causing significant problems downstream and into the property. Rapid erosion in the immediate area of the clearing has resulted in extensive downstream siltation which in turn has changed the direction and velocity of floodwaters, which are undermining and collapsing sections of the riverbank on the boundary of the property. The impact of land clearing in the upper reaches of the Melinau River has been exacerbated by a number of poorly designed concrete piers being installed in the vicinity of the communities adjacent to the park headquarters. These have been installed at 90 degrees to the flow of water which dramatically increases the turbulence and erosion power of high water flows. There is a proposal to prevent further erosion by installing extensive 'mattress gabions' to fortify the exposed banks (IUCN Consultation 2025a).
Invasive Non-Native/ Alien Species
(Invasive alien plants smothering indigenous ground cover plants)
Other invasive species names
Tradescantia fluminensis (Wandering Jew)
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
An invasive alien plant species, Tradescantia fluminensis (Wandering Jew), indigenous to South America, occurs throughout the park headquarters and other disturbed areas of the property. It also occurs along watercourses and has been observed growing epiphytically on low branches overhanging watercourses. (IUCN Consultation 2025b). A glyphosate-based control program conducted between 2010 and 2018 has been abandoned because glyphosate has been banned throughout Malaysia and there has been no attempt to continue the program via an alternate strategy. Whatever gains had been made by the 2010-18 program have been lost and there is no effort being made to map and monitor the spread of this pest species (IUCN Consultation 2025a).
Other Human Disturbances
(A rapidly increasing population adjacent to the property)
Inside site
, Throughout(>50%)
Outside site
At the time of inscription of the property (2000) the estimated population in the three villages on the western and southern boundaries was around 300 persons. The 2020 Conservation Assessment cites an estimate of 800 persons, while a 2024 count put the current population at 1,250 persons, with most of this increase due to migration from other villages in the Barram River catchment. As the planned electrification of the western margin of the property is complete, this will rapidly increase again. Of additional concern it is noted that a number of studies have been conducted to assess the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on the Mulu community and their subsequent response to the loss of tourism income (i.e. increased hunting), however none of these studies has included those communities, an estimated 3,000 persons (IUCN Consultation, 2025a) who have hunting (and illegal bird-nest harvesting) access to the property. There have been several such studies which inaccurately portray the size of the population impacting the property through legal and illegal activity, and the lack of any oversight or monitoring of the hunting pressure in the northern section of the property is concerning (IUCN Consultation, 2025a).
Garbage & Solid Waste
(Poor waste management)
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Outside site
Over the past 20+ years there has been an on-going effort on the part of the Tourism Zone management body to establish a local government controlled waste management system for those villages on the property's western boundary. Many studies have been undertaken and solutions investigated but all to no end. The Tourism Zone management body has undertaken extensive community awareness programs to stop waste being disposed of into the river, but in the absence of a workable solution and in face of the on-going arrival of outsiders, the practice continues. With the rapidly increasing population on the western boundary and the intrusion of some 20 families into the Park upstream of two of the key park attractions and gateway to a third (Camp 5 and the Pinnacles) the volume of rubbish, primarily plastic sheets, bags and bottles, has substantially increased and becomes mobilized by floodwater and left stranded in trees to become a serious visual pollution problem and diminishing the exceptional natural beauty of the property. Completion of the road project will expand this problem exponentially and completion of the dams project will further compound the problem in so much as at present the solid waste generated within the property is bagged and transported by boat to the licensed landfill site of the downstream town of Marudi. This will need to be revised when it is no longer possible to navigate between the property and Marudi due to the dams (IUCN Consultation, 2025a).
Other Human Disturbances
(Illegal entry)
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
Even without easy road access, GMNP is subject to frequent illegal entry by groups from other parts of Sarawak or from foreign countries. Park managers are occasionally aware of groups entering illegally to search for aromatic gaharu wood or orchids, hunting protected species, or catching species such as pangolins for the illegal wildlife trade. Penan report finding snares in remote sections of the park set by poachers and describe meeting strangers from countries such as Thailand and Vietnam in the forest. The problem of illegal entry can be expected to increase exponentially once the road reaches GMNP (IUCN Consultation, 2025). At present there is little if any patrolling being done in the park except along the Melinau River where the park headquarters are located. It is imperative that the SFC increase the number of rangers and that special effort is made to recruit Penan, who know the remote watersheds of the park and who are especially attentive to signs of outsiders within the park (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
The substantial increase in visitor arrivals that is anticipated to result from the construction of a highway from the coastal city of Miri to the property's boundary presents several potential High threats to the property as there is no control of urbanization of the adjacent areas, no scientifically based carrying capacity for the tourist attractions within the property and no management capacity to deal with the potential increase in visitation, increasing illegal hunting and the potential for the illegal harvesting of edible bird nests to recur. Service roads adjacent to the property's boundary, the proposed construction of dams on the Tutoh River, and potential large-scale fires resulting from climate change represent low potential threats to the property.
Roads, Trails & Railroads
(Potential for expansion of roads to service forestry, mining, hydro development)
Outside site
Roads in surrounding areas are potentially an important threat to the property and could arise in the event of new forestry, mining or hydro development projects (see above).
Changes in Physical & Chemical Regimes, Changes in Temperature Regimes, Changes in Precipitation & Hydrological Regime
(Potential for large-scale forest fires)
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Outside site
Large-scale forest fires in South East Asia have become frequent. Media reports refer to fires that have affected parts of the Gunung Mulu property or which have become widespread in Sarawak (Laeng, 2014; Malay Mail, 2019; Annuar, 2019). An increase in such fires could pose a threat to the property's forests and biodiversity. The fires are localized to the karst areas with resulting loss of vegetation. Re-growth takes hundreds of years due to the thin soil cover. The Park has established in-situ fire-fighting, comprising the local communities, park staff, Borsamulu park management (IUCN Consultation, 2020b).
Other Human Disturbances
(Illegal collection of edible bird nests)
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
The illegal collection of edible swiftlet nests has a negative impact on the cave environments, including cave fauna, and contributes to the impact of illegal hunting within the property. In the not so distant past, when nest prices were high, bird nesting was a significant source of income for the local communities on the northern and western boundaries of the property and the harvesting 'rights' for the various caves or parts of caves was informally allocated by mutual consent between the various groups involved. Some individuals then sold their 'rights' to outsiders whose practice it was to illegally enter the property and establish a camp in a remote part of the property. Typically, a 'nesting' group would comprise several climbers to collect the nests, some hunters to source wild meat, a camp-cook and a couple of armed guards to protect the camp. A camp would comprise several canvas shelters for sleeping and cooking (IUCN Consultation, 2005b). The 2020 Outlook Assessment noted that the overall scale of this threat had decreased due to the drop in the price of edible bird nests and the increase in “house swiftlet farming” had become common. However, although illegal bird nest harvesting has been much reduced in recent years, it is reported that the market was losing interest in farmed nests as wild nests are considered to be more beneficial than farmed nests (IUCN Consultation, 2025a). In view of this, a resurgence in illegal harvesting can be expected.
Renewable Energy
(Construction of cascading dams on the Tutoh River)
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Outside site
Construction of a series of cascading dams along the Tutoh River which forms the southern boundary of the property is asserted by a number of NGOs and members of the local communities to have negative impacts on the property (Then, 2024a). While no indication of the extent and nature of such damage has been detailed, a map shows the proposed location of the three dam sites (BMF, 2022b). Regardless of the lack of clarity in regard to the impact, interference with the natural water flow will likely lead to silting and increased flooding of the property.
Residential Areas, Commercial & Industrial Areas, Recreation & Tourism Areas
(Increased tourist infrastructure development)
Outside site
The Sarawak State Government is planning to undertake several large infrastructure projects in the vicinity of GMNP along the Melinau River directly adjacent to the western boundary of GMNP. These include a new township, a large water treatment plant that will draw water from the vicinity of Clearwater Cave, an airstrip extension, a larger airport, and an access road from the Pan-Borneo Highway which is especially concerning (BMF, 2022a).
The road project, due to commence in mid 2025 and scheduled for completion in 2029, will create a highway connecting the property with the coastal city of Mulu. The stated purpose of the highway is to encourage greater visitation to the property and to stimulate economic activity in the region (Then, 2024b and c). Given the +USD800 million cost of the highway, the anticipated / targeted increase in visitation is considered to considerably exceed the carrying capacity of either the property or the surrounding communities. This is anticipated to result in significant changes in the number and type of tourists, together with associated unplanned urbanisation (a hotel is already being planned for construction at Long Iman, the Penan longhouse adjacent to the boundary’s southern boundary) (IUCN Consultation, 2025a), including a proliferation of homestay style accommodation, food and beverage outlets and opportunistic recreational developments present a significant threat to the periphery of the property. There is fear among the local community that the road will provide ready access to outsiders to participate in hunting for the wild meat trade (Ibrahim et al, 2023). The potential threat level is considered to be high, in the absence of: A) a well-structured development planning and approval process to control development in the proximity of the property; B) a thorough community education program to foster an understanding of 'carrying capacity'; and C) a vastly increased enforcement capacity before the beginning of the highway in 2025.
The road project, due to commence in mid 2025 and scheduled for completion in 2029, will create a highway connecting the property with the coastal city of Mulu. The stated purpose of the highway is to encourage greater visitation to the property and to stimulate economic activity in the region (Then, 2024b and c). Given the +USD800 million cost of the highway, the anticipated / targeted increase in visitation is considered to considerably exceed the carrying capacity of either the property or the surrounding communities. This is anticipated to result in significant changes in the number and type of tourists, together with associated unplanned urbanisation (a hotel is already being planned for construction at Long Iman, the Penan longhouse adjacent to the boundary’s southern boundary) (IUCN Consultation, 2025a), including a proliferation of homestay style accommodation, food and beverage outlets and opportunistic recreational developments present a significant threat to the periphery of the property. There is fear among the local community that the road will provide ready access to outsiders to participate in hunting for the wild meat trade (Ibrahim et al, 2023). The potential threat level is considered to be high, in the absence of: A) a well-structured development planning and approval process to control development in the proximity of the property; B) a thorough community education program to foster an understanding of 'carrying capacity'; and C) a vastly increased enforcement capacity before the beginning of the highway in 2025.
Recreational Activities
(Unsustainable increase in tourist arrivals)
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
When the show caves were first opened to visitors, all guided tours of the caves were provided by Park Guides employed by the park’s management authority. This is the practice in practically all publicly owned show cave operations. For complex reasons some decades ago, this practice evolved to become a three-layered system in which some visitors to the show-caves are guided by A) the Park Guides employed by the Managing Agent, Borsarmulu Park Management Sdn. Bhd.; B) the tour guides employed by various Tour Operators; or C) by freelance guides who work directly with the tourists in the capacity of unlicensed (uninsured) Tour Operators. At the current visitation level this system, while not ideal, is workable from the perspective of 'crowding' within the caves and on the associated trails through the rainforest. However, this remains workable due to the remoteness of the property and visitor arrivals being controlled by the frequency and timing of aircraft arrivals. The construction of a highway to increase visitation will change this (IUCN Consultation 2025a). While a 'notional' carrying capacity of 30,000 people per year is noted, this is in reality a 'target' rather a properly assessed limit, but given that the annual visitation is yet to exceed 25,000 the matter has not been given much serious consideration. The level of visitation following construction of the road is expected to rapidly increase well beyond the notional ceiling of 30,000, particularly in the first year (IUCN Consultation, 2025a). To prevent rapid degradation of the show caves (damaged speleothems, deposition of human lint, littering and graffiti, and visitor experience due to overcrowding), a system needs to be put in place to increase the number of properly trained and accredited guides together with establishing an hourly and daily carrying capacity for each of the individual show caves (IUCN Consultation, 2025b).
Residential Areas, Commercial & Industrial Areas, Recreation & Tourism Areas
(Unplanned urbanization on the property's boundary )
Outside site
It is anticipated that the completion of the road development will also lead to a significant increase in the population (i.e. 'explode') on the southern and western boundaries, as hotels, homestays, and recreation activities (zip-lines, quad bikes, kayaking, etc.) are introduced (IUCN Consultation, 2025b).
Biological System Management
(Loss of significant species)
Inside site
, Throughout(>50%)
In 2019, local hunters reported seeing a number of bearded pig (Sus barbatus) carcasses within the property but could find no live bearded pigs (IUCN Consultation 2025a). This precedes the first recognition of African Swine Flu (ASF) in the neighbouring state of Sabah in December of 2020 (Hamid et al., 2023) but is believed to be the result of an ASF infection. ASF has now spread throughout the whole of Borneo and has had an alarming impact on the property's bearded pig population. Since the sighting of the carcasses in 2019 not a single live bearded pig has been sighted within the property despite the significant increase in hunting effort, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic (IUCN Consultation, 2025a). Bearded pigs are listed as 'Vulnerable' by the IUCN Red List of endangered species and are recognized as ecologically vital ‘ecosystem engineers’ which disperse and predate tree seeds, rooting through soil and removing saplings (Daniel et. al, 2024). A large part of the property supports many species of dipterocarp trees which exhibit simultaneous mass flowering events every 2 to 10 years, an evolutionary strategy thought to be a strategy to overcome the heavy predation of seeds by bearded pigs and deer (Appanah, 1993). In the absence of a means to control the spread of the high mortality rated ASF it is likely that the property's bearded pig population will not recover and it is important to consider what impact the absence of these 'ecosystem engineers' might have on the structure of the lowland rainforest areas of the property.
Identity/social cohesion/ changes in local population and community that result in negative impact
(Lack of consultation - social change)
Outside site
In numerous projects (development as well as conservation projects) in Mulu, very little effort is reported to be made to consult with local communities, and when it does happen, it is usually after decisions have already been made. Nevertheless, communities have managed to defend the outstanding beauty of the Mulu area against development projects (such as the proposed palm oil plantation in 2019), thanks in part to the community of Batu Bungan and its village headman (BMF, 2023).
The surprise appointment of a new village headman in August 2023 by the government (reportedly without the community's election or knowledge, which is part of a legal dispute) could push development projects forward and thereby could have a negative impact on Gunung Mulu National Park.
The surprise appointment of a new village headman in August 2023 by the government (reportedly without the community's election or knowledge, which is part of a legal dispute) could push development projects forward and thereby could have a negative impact on Gunung Mulu National Park.
Residential Areas
(Risk for the Sungai Melinau River )
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
There are concerns regarding potential negative impacts of a planned water treatment plant in teh vicinity of the property, and potentially on the land of the Penan village, Batu Bungan, given its proximity to the Sungai Melinau river, which is located inside the World Heritage site and would be likely source of water for the plant, and therefore also a threat for the water cycle of the world-famous Mulu cave system (Donald, 2022). In a letter to the Land and Survey Department (October 2022), the community of Batu Bungan opposed the development of the water treatment plant on their land.
Involvement of stakeholders and rightsholders, including indigenous peoples and local communities, in decision-making processes
The 2020 Outlook assessment states that Sarawak Forestry Corporation (SFC) has formed a Special Park Committee for the property. This committee comprises mostly the headmen (village chiefs) and other stakeholders adjacent to the property, with the Park Warden as their Chairman. The role of this committee is to assist the Controller of National Parks and Nature Reserves and the Park Warden in the protection and management of the property, and to promote public appreciation and enjoyment in the property. This forum helps to increase the local community participation in management of the park (IUCN Consultation, 2020b). In practice, the Special Park Committee is considered to be ineffective as it was convened only very few times between 2000 and 2023, and the last meeting dealt solely with the community's objection to a new park proposed many kilometres downstream of the Tutoh River (IUCN Consultation, 2025a). After significant land clearing and construction of some 20 shelters in Extension 1 of the national park, the group responsible were challenged to explain themselves and the spokesperson's reply was 'this is our hunting land. It was made a national park without our consultation or agreement' (IUCN Consultation, 2025a). This demonstrates significant need to improve relationships with local communities to enhance engagement in nature conservation activities.
Legal framework
The National Park Ordinance for Sarawak was gazetted in 1956, subsequently amended and is now the National Park and Nature Reserve Ordinance of 1998. The setting of policy direction for management of all National Parks and other Protected Areas in Sarawak is the responsibility of the State Government through the National Parks and Nature Reserves Ordinance (1998) and associated Regulations. It is also governed by the National Parks and Nature Reserves Regulation 1999 (www.mulupark.com). The Ordinance forms the legal framework for management of Gunung Mulu National Park with the SFC, TPAs jurisdiction under SFC, responsible for administration of parks and nature reserves. In January 2020, SFC was mandated by the State Government as the sole Management Authority of Wildlife and Totally Protected Areas, while the Forest Department Sarawak is the authority on Forestry matters as stipulated in the Forest Ordinance only (IUCN Consultation, 2020b). An additional part of the legal framework is the Wildlife Protection Ordinance, 1998 (Sarawak Forestry Corporation, 2020).
Governance arrangements
The SFC, a state-owned statutory body, is the management agency ultimately responsible for park management and maintenance of the Outstanding Universal Value of the property (Sarawak Forestry Corporation, 2020). Operational management has been divided between two organizations; SFC manages the 'wilderness zone' which comprises about 90% of the property, and privately owned Borsarmulu Park Management Sdn Bhd (BPM), which manages the 'tourism zone' (about 10%) of the property, in the capacity of a 'Managing Agent' responsible for the implementation of the tourism related aspects of a development and management plan (the Plan) endorsed by the State Government of Sarawak. Under the terms of a 'Management Agreement' BPM is responsible for the developments described in the Plan and to plan and oversee the operational requirements of the Tourism Zone. Revenue collected from entry fees and guided tours is transferred to the custody of SFC on a daily basis. (IUCN Consultation 2025b). In 2024, the privately owned BPM was taken over by The Sarawak Economic Development Corporation (SEDC) a state – owned statutory body. The current situation is somewhat confusing in that BPM is still the appointed 'Managing Agent' but owned by a state-owned corporation which may have implications for funding the development and operational funding for the property (IUCN Consultation, 2025a).
Integration into local, regional and national planning systems (including sea/landscape connectivity)
The state government has produced a Post-COVID-19 Development Strategy 2030, which includes tourism as one of six key sectors driving the state's economy and notes a project to construct road access to the property to stimulate tourism (Then, 2024c). The Regional Corridor Development Authority has produced a master plan for Mulu which is focused on a township development adjacent to the western boundary of the property. Allocation to upgrade the infrastructure of the Mentawi Ranger Station, Camp 5 and walkways was approved by the Federal Government of Malaysia through the Ministry of Tourism, Arts and Culture under the 12th Malaysian Plan in 2025 (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
Additionally the property is included in the 'The Heart of Borneo Conservation Agreement' which was initiated by the World Wide Fund for Nature to protect a 220,000 km² forested region on Borneo island. The agreement was signed by the governments of Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia in 2007. The protected areas covered by the agreement include Batang Ai NP, Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary, Gunung Mulu NP, Crocker Range NP, Kinabalu NP in Malaysia, the Kayan Mentarang NP, Betung Kerihun NP, Bukit Baka Bukit Raya NP, Danau Sentarum NP in Indonesia and the Ulu Temburong NP in Brunei.
Additionally the property is included in the 'The Heart of Borneo Conservation Agreement' which was initiated by the World Wide Fund for Nature to protect a 220,000 km² forested region on Borneo island. The agreement was signed by the governments of Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia in 2007. The protected areas covered by the agreement include Batang Ai NP, Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary, Gunung Mulu NP, Crocker Range NP, Kinabalu NP in Malaysia, the Kayan Mentarang NP, Betung Kerihun NP, Bukit Baka Bukit Raya NP, Danau Sentarum NP in Indonesia and the Ulu Temburong NP in Brunei.
Boundaries
IUCN's evaluation of the nomination said: 'GMNP's limits are not ideal as full catchment protection is lacking (very important for some of the caves) and the very important caves in the adjacent Gunung Buda area are not included in the property. The State Government of Sarawak has recognised these deficiencies and Extension No 1 (extension of 4,555 ha) was gazetted in 2012 (Sarawak Government Gazette, 2012), and Extension No 2 (28,251 ha) was gazetted in 2011 (Sarawak Government Gazette, 2011). These extensions, which increased the area of the National Park from 52,865 ha to 85,671 ha, have not been incorporated into the World Heritage property. The addition of these two extensions to the property through a Significant Boundary Modification should be explored. Furthermore, Gunung Buda was gazetted as a National Park (Sarawak Government Gazette, 2000a) (extension of 6,235 ha) and the Gunung Buda Extension No 1 (extension of 5,072 ha) (Sarawak Government Gazette, 2000b). With a total protected area of 11,307 ha and the Gunung Mulu National Park total of 85,671 ha, the property has the potential to cover a revised area of 96,978 ha. According to the 2001 State of Conservation report (UNESCO, 2001), the local community of Gunung Buda National Park withdrew their support for the park being added to the World Heritage nomination because of an on-going dispute with the Government about land rights, edible bird nest harvesting and co-management of Gunung Buda National Park. This has been clarified (2018) and the local community are in favor of Gunung Buda becoming a part of the World Heritage property (Gill, 2018). Some statements made in the Periodic Reporting could not be substantiated from other documentation: 'Although there was no buffer zone identified at the time of inscription, the property is surrounded by National Park that effectively acts as a buffer zone' (State Party of Malaysia, 2012). There is no definitive evidence that the park is 'surrounded by other national parks' (in fact, the published map indicates otherwise), something that needs to be clarified.
Overlapping international designations
The Gunung Mulu National Park does not overlap with any Biosphere reserve, UNESCO Global Geopark or Ramsar site. However, it is recognized as an ASEAN Heritage Park (AHP) since 29 November 1984.
Implementation of World Heritage Committee decisions and recommendations
The State Party has been fully cooperative with implementation of Committee decisions. The 2010 decision of the Committee welcomed reports from the State Party and was very appreciative of the cooperation of the State Party. However, more than a decade has elapsed since the last formal report and the last decision by the Committee decision on the property.
Climate action
Sarawak Forestry Corporation has established a 'Climate Action' section and the respective Climate Change & Corporate Sustainability division which is developing monitoring action plans to address threats to attributes of the state's protected areas, including the property (IUCN Consultation, 2025a), however the current status and effectiveness is unclear.
Management plan and overall management system
The Property has two distinct zones. About 10% of the property which is subject to tourism is classed as 'Tourism Zone' and is managed by Borsarmulu Park Management Sdn. Bhd. (BPM). The remaining area is classed as 'Wilderness Zone' and is managed by Sarawak Forestry Corporation (SFC). It has an Integrated Development Management Plan 2000-2020 (the Plan) but as neither of the above agencies' websites provides a link to the plan it is not possible to evaluate it's effectiveness. As the overarching Management Authority for the property, SFC has established a new Working Committee for monitoring the management effectiveness of BPM (IUCN Consultation, 2020b). The current management faces challenges in terms of protection of the Outstanding Universal Value of the property due to hunting pressure and lack of enforcement of the regulations. The ongoing interest by international specialists in the further exploration and research of the property represents a de facto monitoring process that could sound the alert on any inappropriate aspects of management. Management of the site for tourism continues to be effective (IUCN Consultation 2020). However, in the absence of information pertaining to the management plan or monitoring it is not possible to form an absolute determination on effectiveness of the management system. Monitoring systems have not been implemented sufficiently for hunting, cave environments open to visitors and the 10 year review of the Management Plan. The current Management Plan expired in 2020 and a revised management plan is expected to be included in the 13th Malaysia Plan (RMKe-13) (IUCN Consultation 2025a).
Law enforcement
Citing an absence of information on enforcement within the property, the 2020 Outlook assessment indicated that a report on enforcement in the next State of Conservation (SOC) report by the State Party would be useful. In this regard, the 2023 Periodic Report notes that "Illegal activities remain one of the major challenges in managing the property" but goes on to say "this pressure is mainly confined to nomadic Penan communities who have been given permission to hunt non-totally protected species, such as the wild boar, for subsistence consumption only" (State Party of Malaysia, 2023). The Periodic Report rates the number of professional staff within the property to provide enforcement activity as 'good', and the opportunity for their training and development as 'fair'. A 2023 article outlined comments by local people such as: “We eat most of the animals in the park, to the point of posing a threat to them. Now it is almost difficult to see hornbills, pergam, punai, and kuang birds compared to the 1960s. Other animals such as forest cats, foxes, bats, pythons, and red cats are also hunted” and “it has become a problem because they just live opposite the park and river, so they can easily enter the park for hunting and fishing. They [hunt and fish] outside the designated areas that are located next to their village. The problem is that hunting is not restricted to wild boars. Some people hunt endangered and even totally protected species” and “ In Mulu, locals living near the national park have the right to hunt wild animals that are not protected. But when they hunt, usually the people there will hunt anything they find. Although there is a law, the parties here are less able to carry out effective enforcement (Ibrahim et. al, 2023a). This raises concerns that hunting is a serious threat which is not being addressed. Sarawak Forestry Corporation have eight staff stationed at the property for management of the wilderness zone at present (February 2025) but enforcement of illegal activities is not actively undertaken (IUCN Consultation 2025a).
Sustainable finance
Funding for the protection and management of the property is provided from the annual budget of the Sarawak State Government. Park entry and guided tour fees (USD 0.375M in 2024) are deposited as general government revenue. Funding from the time of World Heritage inscription to date has been adequate and not tied to the level of revenue generated by tourism. This has been an important consideration in view of the fact that the fees collected from tourists visiting the property is a very small part of what the foreign visitors spend in Sarawak on transport, accommodation, food and beverages etc. (IUCN Consultation, 2025b). Of much concern is a statement by the State Premier that from 2027 all government linked companies, such as Borsarmulu Park Management Sdn. Bhd. will no longer be funded by the government of Sarawak and must generate their own revenue (Ling, 2024). Based on the present level of visitor arrivals (23,000 in 2024; IUCN Consultation, 2025a) and an annual operating budget of approximately USD 1.5M the average yield per visitor will need to be USD 65 compared to the present yield (2024) of USD 16.3 (approx.). The development of road access will certainly increase visitation, especially domestic tourists. This will in turn reduce the required yield per visitor but the operating budget will need to be increased as significantly more human resources will be required to manage the larger number of visitors. This situation is concerning from the perspective that, to date, the property's tourism zone management has been focused on providing educational experiences to present the World Heritage Site attributes but the need to become revenue driven raises the potential for activities that would raise revenue but not necessarily have a primary focus on the presentation and conservation of the site values (e.g. zip lines, bungee jumping) and which could detract from the experiences presently provided.
Staff capacity, training and development
The 2002 Periodic Report stated that the property did not have adequate staffing, that additional training for existing staff was necessary and that additional funds were needed (State Party of Malaysia, 2002). Since then personnel in the property has increased, and by 2025, there are nine permanent staff and four Wildlife Guardian Ranger (WGR) of SFC to manage the wilderness zone and more than 100 BPM staff to manage the tourism zone. While the number and capacity of the tourism zone staff are considered adequate, training opportunities continue to be provided, and park guide training is regularly provided, there is a question of whether the property's long interface with logging zones and oil-palm plantations is being adequately supervised, and the capacity of the team of eight in the wilderness zone to implement monitoring programs or some degree of control over hunting within the property is in doubt (IUCN Consultation 2025a).
Education and interpretation programmes
The education component at the primary school level was undertaken by the BPM's Education and Communications Officer in pre-COVID-19 years but were ceased at that time (IUCN Consultation, 2025a). Interpretative guided and self-guide tours of the caves and rainforest walkways continue to be an integral part of their BPM's management of the tourism zone. There is also a very informative educational facility center at the visitor reception building for visitors to learn about the property's geodiversity, biodiversity and it's World Heritage status and significance. This initiative has been taken seriously with the endless CEPA program by Sarawak Forestry Corporation’s Miri Regional Office Community Liaison & Education Section involving local communities from different backgrounds and education levels.
Tourism and visitation management
A private company, Borsarmulu Park Management (BPM), is responsible for management of tourism within the 10% of park designated as Tourism Zone. Recreational activities provided within the property include guided tours to five show-caves, 'adventure caving' tours to select sections of five unmodified caves, two mountain walk experiences and several self-guided rainforest walk experiences. A potential problem is presented by the situation that not all visitors to the show-caves and the mountain walking experiences are supervised by BPM employed guides; some are led by Tour Operator employed guides and some are led by freelance guides who are in effect functioning as unlicensed and uninsured tour operators (IUCN Consultation, 2025b). In 2017, it was reported that the state has initiated a requirement for all guides working within the property to undertake a training and accreditation program, as the use of guides not trained by the site administration would lead to wrong and misleading information being delivered (IUCN Consultation, 2017). Visitation numbers roughly doubled between 2001 (13,618) and 2017 (23,730) (Sarawak Forestry Corporation, 2020), during the pandemic there were very few visitors, but visitation has bounced back to a healthy 22,500 in 2024. In 2024, this private company was taken over by the Sarawak Economic Development Corporation, a state-owned statutory body (IUCN Consultation, 2025a).
Sustainable use
Given that 90% of the park is zoned and managed as wilderness, use of this part of the park should be sustainable. However, considering A) the lack of any monitoring of the legal hunting effort of those people who have traditional hunting and gathering privileges in specified river catchment areas; B) that there is no effort to curtail the illegal hunting by both privilege holders hunting outside of their specified areas and targeting species they are not permitted to hunt; and C) that there is no effort to stop non-privilege holders from hunting within the property (IUCN Consultation, 2025a), there is significant concern that hunting within the property is unsustainable. This sort of illegal exploitation was reported in 2002 (Periodic Reporting) as was the unsustainable illegal harvesting of edible bird nests which, while not a problem at present due to competition from 'farmed bird nests, this threat has potential to resurface in the foreseeable future given the possible increase in the demand for wild nests from caves. The unsustainability of hunting within the property is exacerbated by the rapid growth (by migration from other areas) in the population on the property's western boundary. From 2000 to 2020 the population grew from around 300 to 800, but from 2020 to 2024 it has risen to 1,250, most of whom do not have traditional hunting privileges and do not have paid employment, so are hunting within the property (IUCN Consultation, 2025a). It is noted that the Forest Department Sarawak prepared a report on proposed monitoring in 2008 but no public documentation of adoption and any results could be located. The tourism zone is the area where people come into contact with the property's sensitive cave-systems. Cave tourism at the present visitation level (22,500 in 2024) (IUCN Consultation 2025a) is sustainable with all cave visitors being required to be accompanied by a licensed guide in relatively small groups, but the likely dramatic increase in visitor arrivals on completion of the highway from Miri will undoubtedly challenge the sustainability of the cave-based tourism. A notional carrying capacity is cited elsewhere in this report as 30,000 persons per year, however this was based solely on a perceived desirable number from an economic perspective and based on the likely availability of air transport to and from the property (IUCN Consultation, 2025b). Before this anticipated increase in visitor arrivals, it is vital that a well-reasoned carrying capacity is established for each individual cave detailing the maximum number of people in any given group, the maximum number of groups in the cave at any given time and the maximum number of people in the cave in an hour and a day. The number of accredited guides will have to be increased as does the will and ability of staff to implement crowd control regulations. Uncontrolled urbanization on the property's western boundary has increased in very recent years as the steady growth - from 300+ in 2000 to 800 in 2020- became rapid growth by migration to 1,250 (more than 50%) in 2024. This growth from migration is expected to rapidly increase as the highway construction progresses and unplanned urbanization will become evident on the southern boundary (IUCN Consultation, 2025a). There is a need to slow and control the increasing development both in and around the property so that visitor numbers do not reach levels where the visitor experiences are degraded (IUCN Consultation, 2017).
Monitoring
It is noted that the Department of Forestry prepared a report on proposed monitoring in 2008, and the 2009 SOC refers to the 'Biodiversity Monitoring System' that has been in place 'since 2008' so presumably that monitoring process is underway but to what extent is not clear (UNESCO, 2009). The management authority publishes figures on park visitation but seemingly not much else (Sarawak Forestry Corporation, 2020). Examples of seizures and prosecutions pertaining to illegal exploitation throughout Sarawak are published, but there appears to be no quantitative breakdown pertaining to Gunung Mulu National Park. Monitoring systems are highly desirable and there have been no prosecutions for illegal activities. In 2020, it was reported that SFC has created a Sarawak Biodiversity Information System (SBIS) in which all big data on park and wildlife issues will be uploaded and maintained by the Parks Biodiversity Database Management System Section. This system will help in the process of monitoring all activities in all parks, including GMNP (IUCN Consultation, 2020b). Other than recording the total number of tourists and their origins, and the total revenue collected from tourists, the only systematic monitoring within the property is a very recently implemented cave temperature monitoring program (IUCN Consultation, 2025a).
Research
There is substantial evidence of numerous surveys and studies. The park website lists many research projects (Borsarmulu Park Management Sdn Bhd 2020 - see Research portal). Additional research projects throughout Sarawak are identified by the main management agency (Sarawak Forestry Corporation 2020 - see the rimba-sarawak portal). The caves are continually being explored and mapped and scientific research conducted (Mulu Caves Project 1978-2020). The Sarawak online Research Application System (SORAS) has recently been introduced for research permits to be issued.
Effectiveness of management system and governance in addressing threats outside the site
The SFC, which has responsibility for the overall management of the property, has extensive responsibilities for forest areas outside of the property and should therefore be in a position to play an active role in dealing with some activities or proposed developments that might threaten the property from outside. The unfortunate fact that land clearance occurred in an area which is an important wildlife corridor and feeding ground for the Deer Cave bat population (which provide the outstanding wildlife spectacle detailed in the OUV) and was unable to prevent, or subsequently address, the illegal clearing and occupation of part of the Park's Extension No 1 on the property's western boundary is concerning (IUCN Consultation 2025a). Threats posed by uncontrolled urbanization on the property's boundary are beyond the scope of SFC's authority.
Effectiveness of management system and governance in addressing threats inside the site
Current threats within the property include an increasing occurrence of illegal hunting and the invasive alien plant species Tradescantia fluminensis both of which require enhanced management intervention from the eight wilderness zone management staff (IUCN Consultation 2025a).
The division of management responsibilities between the Sarawak Forestry Corporation (SFC) for the property as a whole and a Government Linked Company (Borsarmulu Park Management Sdn. Bhd. which is owned by the Sarawak Economic Development Corporation) for the visitors zone seems to be effective. The underlying legal framework is strong and the property receives natural protection from its rugged terrain and the remoteness of most of the caves (no public road access). Protection of the property's boundaries has been improved through extensions and the establishment of the Gunung Buda National Park and the Gunung Buda National Park Extension No. 1. However, failure to recognize the importance to the property of a section of land which was to be developed for oil palm production before the land was rescheduled to be added to the national park following successful protest by local people indicates the need for 'some concern' for effective protection and management of the property. Relationships with Indigenous peoples require careful consultation and management. When it comes to the property's broader areas of forest, there are concerns about the ability of SFC to adequately supervise the property's long interface with local communities, oil-palm development and logging zones, and to prevent the illegal and increasing exploitation of property resources that has been reported. Confidence in the management system could be enhanced through publication of the management plan and monitoring data. The large number of international research projects provide an early-warning system for the property - at least when it comes to the cave systems themselves.
Spectacular caves
Good
Trend
Stable
No documentary evidence of significant deterioration of these values could be found. Gill (2024) states that as of 2022, 458.6 km of caves in GMNP have been explored and mapped. The Clearwater Cave System measures 256.1 km, the eight longest cave system in the world, and likely the largest by volume.
Exceptional natural beauty and an outstanding wildlife spectacle
Low Concern
Trend
Data Deficient
The daily bat exodus continues to impress visitors and most commentary is very positive (numerous items and websites on the internet). There is a concern about the lack of understanding of the feeding grounds of the major deer cave bat colony - which are outside of the park - and are quite possibly at risk of development.
Outstanding example of cave geomorphology
Good
Trend
Stable
No documentary evidence of significant deterioration of these values could be found (official documents, internet) and the large number of international research projects functions as an informal early-warning system.
Cave ecology (troglobite and stygobite evolution)
Good
Trend
Stable
Given the large number of international research projects occurring at Mulu as well and the absence of any negative reports in official documents as well as the remoteness of these habitats, the situation looks good and the caves remain a unique natural laboratory to study cave ecology (Gill, 2024). A concern is the unsustainable illegal bird nest harvesting where habitats are damaged due to camping within the caves, litter and species being destroyed under foot. The activity has diminished in recent years due to the rise in bird nest farming activities. In this case the capacity for the enforcement of regulations regarding bird nesting will need to be greatly improved, particularly in view of the rapidly expanding local population with no opportunity for paid employment.
One of the richest assemblages of flora biota
Low Concern
Trend
Data Deficient
There continues to be a strong interest by researchers to conduct biodiversity studies in the park, often resulting in additional new species being discovered. None of the literature viewed raises any concern about loss of biodiversity (all official documents plus numerous published research papers on Internet). Gill (2024) states that plant species include more than 1,800 flowering plants and 1,700 mosses and liverworts.
The park is also among one of the few well-documented areas in Borneo for ferns and lycophytes with a recorded 426 species belonging to 113 genera and 30 families. In 2019, Chen et al. (2021) conducted two field trips to explore the fern flora of Gunung Mulu National Park. Among 258 collections, specimens of an Antrophyum and a Pteris are of special interest because their peculiar morphologies do not match any known congeneric species in Borneo and neighbouring areas. Morphologically, this unknown Antrophyum is similar to A. callifolium Blume, a widespread species in Malesia, in its filiform paraphyses.
However, the concerns raised about small-scale illegal exploitation of some of the biological attributes of the park, the onset of climate change, the widespread phenomenon of forest fires in Sarawak, a significant interface between the park and adjacent intensive development (agriculture, oil palms and logging), and a lack of monitoring data combine to raise concerns about the longer-term future of these forests. The potential for change in the floral structure of the lowland rainforest due to the absence of bearded pigs should be considered.
The park is also among one of the few well-documented areas in Borneo for ferns and lycophytes with a recorded 426 species belonging to 113 genera and 30 families. In 2019, Chen et al. (2021) conducted two field trips to explore the fern flora of Gunung Mulu National Park. Among 258 collections, specimens of an Antrophyum and a Pteris are of special interest because their peculiar morphologies do not match any known congeneric species in Borneo and neighbouring areas. Morphologically, this unknown Antrophyum is similar to A. callifolium Blume, a widespread species in Malesia, in its filiform paraphyses.
However, the concerns raised about small-scale illegal exploitation of some of the biological attributes of the park, the onset of climate change, the widespread phenomenon of forest fires in Sarawak, a significant interface between the park and adjacent intensive development (agriculture, oil palms and logging), and a lack of monitoring data combine to raise concerns about the longer-term future of these forests. The potential for change in the floral structure of the lowland rainforest due to the absence of bearded pigs should be considered.
One of the richest assemblages of fauna biota
Low Concern
Trend
Data Deficient
There continues to be a strong interest by researchers to conduct biodiversity studies in the park, often resulting in additional new species being discovered.
For example, Fukuyama et al. (2021) discovered one new amphibian and ten new reptile records from GMNP and its surrounding area. In the records, Asthenodipsas jamilinaisi and Garthius chaseni were newly recorded in the Sarawak State. The researchers also present the first record of Cyrtodactylus muluensisfrom outside of GMNP and the second record of Opisthotropis typica from the park. Combined with previous information, a total of
108 amphibians and 104 reptiles are known from GMNP, and their preferred habitat types are diverse.
None of the literature viewed raises any concern about loss of biodiversity, however there is also a lack of monitoring data to determine any trends. Concerns raised about illegal exploitation of some of the biological attributes of the park, the onset of climate change, the widespread phenomenon of forest fires in Sarawak, a significant interface between the park and adjacent intensive development (agriculture, oil palms and logging), and a lack of planning and monitoring data combine to raise concerns about the longer-term future of the ecosystem on which this fauna depends.
For example, Fukuyama et al. (2021) discovered one new amphibian and ten new reptile records from GMNP and its surrounding area. In the records, Asthenodipsas jamilinaisi and Garthius chaseni were newly recorded in the Sarawak State. The researchers also present the first record of Cyrtodactylus muluensisfrom outside of GMNP and the second record of Opisthotropis typica from the park. Combined with previous information, a total of
108 amphibians and 104 reptiles are known from GMNP, and their preferred habitat types are diverse.
None of the literature viewed raises any concern about loss of biodiversity, however there is also a lack of monitoring data to determine any trends. Concerns raised about illegal exploitation of some of the biological attributes of the park, the onset of climate change, the widespread phenomenon of forest fires in Sarawak, a significant interface between the park and adjacent intensive development (agriculture, oil palms and logging), and a lack of planning and monitoring data combine to raise concerns about the longer-term future of the ecosystem on which this fauna depends.
Assessment of the current state and trend of World Heritage values
Stable
From a geodiversity perspective the property is in very good condition and international research interest provides an early-warning system about any deterioration in the property's World Heritage attributes. However, there is evidence that the subsistence fishing, hunting (of boar and deer only), and gathering of non-timber forest products in specified areas required improved management responses. The rapidly increasing population on the property margin is a significant problem as people who do not have subsistence hunting privileges are fishing and hunting within the property, and both legal and illegal hunters are hunting outside of the specified areas and targeting any species perceived to be edible or saleable. Intensive development such as oil-palm plantations and logging around parts of the property's periphery bring the potential for undesirable edge effects. The provision of road access to the property's boundary, for the specific purpose of increasing visitor numbers and stimulating economic activity in the region, is a concern from the perspective of an uncontrollable rapid increase in tourist arrivals with a corresponding increase in the boundary population as people migrate to the area in search of economic opportunity. This in turn will lead to a further increase in hunting. This, combined with the prevalence of forest fires in the rest of the region and the onset of climate change, raises concerns about the future of the property's rainforests and associated biodiversity. Similarly, there is a concern about the lack of understanding of the feeding grounds of the major Deer Cave bat colony - which are outside of the property and unprotected - and possibly at risk of development and degradation. Up-to-date reporting as well as publication of monitoring data and management planning documents may help address these concerns.
Assessment of the current state and trend of other important values
Low Concern
Stable
Notably, in recent years Penan communities living in and around GMNP have been actively documenting their history within the property. To date they have documented more than 1000 georeferenced named sites with accompanying video narration of the ecological and historical significance of these sites, and they have further cross-referenced these with genealogies which demonstrate ancestral presence in this landscape going back hundreds of years. This documentation unequivocally demonstrates that Penan have been key actors in managing the forests of GMNP and that they play an ongoing role as maintaining the ecological integrity and natural values of the Gunung Mulu forest ecosystem. Nevertheless, this documentation was done in an unofficial capacity due to a lack of formal recognition of Penan stewardship of forests, either in GMNP or in other parts of Sarawak. Penan have a long and unbroken relationship with the watersheds that make up GMNP, and are keen to ensure that this history be recorded and acknowledged, but significant effort is needed, which can only be led by Malaysians, to ensure that Penan history in the property is granted official recognition (IUCN Consultation, 2025). Less is publicly known about the Berawan/Tring Indigenous people who also have land claim and rights in the area.
Additional information
Legal subsistence hunting of wild game,
Fishing areas and conservation of fish stocks
Some indigenous people from specified longhouses who have legal rights for traditional hunting of very specific species (boar and deer) and fishing in specified areas of the property (WHC, 2012).
Due to the substantial increase in the population adjacent to the western boundary of the property illegal hunting and fishing of all species is carried out with no oversight or enforcement. The Melinau River is highly polluted (2020) due to effluent and waste being deposited in the river. There is no waste management system in place so rubbish disposal areas on the bank of the Melinau River are a health hazard - until the next flood event washes the rubbish into the river and the lowland rainforest areas of the property (IUCN Consultation, 2025a and b).
Collection of wild plants and mushrooms
Some indigenous people from specified longhouses who have legal rights for traditional gathering of plant material for sustenance. Commonly sought items include a variety of fruits, edible ferns, yams and bamboo shoots. They also gather non-timber forest products (rattan) for weaving basket but these are also sold to tourists. There have been complaints by some local people that rattan was too hard to find in some parts of the property due to overharvesting (IUCN Consultation, 2025b).
Over exploitation is a concern as the exercise of traditional privileges is unmonitored and the property is being accessed by a rapidly growing number of people who do have the right to collect material from the property.
Wilderness and iconic features,
Sacred natural sites or landscapes
In a 'shrinking world', the property is valued for its pristine wilderness, both above ground and subterranean (Sarawak Forest Corporation 2020 - see National Parks and Nature Reserves).
The very rugged and remote nature of much of the property protects it from any significant change to its cultural/spiritual values.
Collection of medicinal resources for local use,
Outdoor recreation and tourism,
Natural beauty and scenery
Valued for its tourism resources, especially the accessible caves, wildlife display (bat exodus) and rainforest setting (Sarawak Forestry Corporation 2020, Borsarmulu Park Management Sdn Bhd 2020, numerous Trip Advisor reviews).
Under the present access conditions the impacts are probably sustainable. Fresh water supply to the western boundary communities is presently in the planning stage while the supply of electricity to these communities is well into the implementation stage and is without doubt the root cause for the rapid growth in the population. The lack of a waste management system, particular in view of the growing population is of concern.
Importance for research,
Contribution to education
Because of the great diversity and pristine condition of the property - and the extraordinary attributes of the caves - it is valued by many researchers and cave explorers who conduct numerous surveys and research projects in the property (Sarawak Forestry Corporation 2020, Borsarmulu Park Management Sdn Bhd 2020, numerous papers in international journals, Mulu Caves Project 1978 to 2020). The UNESCO website for the Gunung Mulu World Heritage property says that it is the most researched tropical cave-system in the world.
Permitted research must abide by guidelines for protection of the resource.
Importance for research,
Contribution to education
Interpretation materials of a high standard are readily available. Researchers are required to share their knowledge with the park guides to assist them with presenting the property's attributes. All recreation activities within the property were developed on the basis of providing an opportunity to educate visitors about the property and its significance (IUCN Consultation 2025b).
.
.
All guides working within the property must undertake a brief training course and be accredited by SFC by way of a Park Guide License. While those guides employed directly by the property are subject to an ongoing weekly training regime the tour operator employed and freelance guides are not. as a consequence, not all guides are sufficiently trained
Soil stabilisation,
Water provision (importance for water quantity and quality)
The property protects major catchments whose rivers flow into settled areas downstream from the property.
The increasing population adjacent to the western boundary in the absence of a water management system and the illegal occupation and land clearing within Extension No 1 of the GMNP and adjacent to the property, the pollution of the Melinau River is of concern, and land clearing down to the riverbank has resulted in significant bank erosion and siltation downstream from the cleared area.
History and tradition,
Wilderness and iconic features,
Sacred natural sites or landscapes,
Sacred or symbolic plants or animals,
Cultural identity and sense of belonging
Indigenous people have access to the property to practice traditional hunting and other customs but this is over exploited (Ibrahim, 2023a and b).
Tourism visitation to the park provides sustainable employment. Tourism is a major economic driver locally providing jobs to the indigenous community. The property provides a huge setting for research and education in the fields of biology and earth sciences. The awe-inspiring setting provides all visitors with an experience of nature at its grandest and most primeval. The property also provides environmental services in the form of catchment protection.
| № | Organization | Brief description of Active Projects | Website |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Carlton University, Canada. | Biogeochemical studies in caves2007 to present. |
https://mulupark.com/education-research/research-volunteering/
|
| 2 | Claremont Colleges, California, USA | Biogeochemical studies in caves2007 to present |
https://mulupark.com/education-research/research-volunteering/
|
| 3 | University of Greifswald, Germany | Interactions between bats and pitcher plants 2013 to present. |
https://mulupark.com/education-research/research-volunteering/
|
| 4 | Department of Zoology. Faculty of Resource Science and Technology. Universiti Malaysia Sarawak | Small mammals surveys |
https://mulupark.com/education-research/research-volunteering/
|
| 5 | University of Brunei Darussalam | Acoustic and ecological studies of Amphibians 2007 to present |
https://mulupark.com/education-research/research-volunteering/
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| 6 | Graduate School of Human & Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Japan | Re-evaluation of herpetofaunal inventory in Sarawak 2010 to present |
https://mulupark.com/education-research/research-volunteering/
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| 7 | Georgia Institute of Technology, USA | Stalagmite records of abrupt climate change in the tropical Pacific 2003 to present |
https://mulupark.com/education-research/research-volunteering/
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| 8 | Department of Botany. Faculty of Resource Science and Technology. Universiti Malaysia Sarawak | Pollination guilds of aroids at Mulu National Park; 2017 to present |
https://mulupark.com/education-research/research-volunteering/
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| 9 | Universiti Sarawak Malaysia | Fish and Macroinvertebrate communities in selected protected areas in Sarawak; 2017 to present |
https://mulupark.com/education-research/research-volunteering/
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| 10 | Universiti Sarawak Malaysia | Herpetofaunal inventory and larval forms; 2006 to present |
https://mulupark.com/education-research/research-volunteering/
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References
| № | References |
|---|---|
| 1 |
Annuar, A. (2019). Nearly 1,500 cases of open burning in Malaysia during haze season, says deputy minister [online]. The Malay Mail, published online 11 November 2019. Available at: <https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2019/11/11/nearly-1…;. [Accessed 1 January 2020].
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| 2 |
Appanah S. (1993). Mass flowering of dipterocarp forests in the aseasonal tropics. Journal of Bioscience, 4, pp 457-474.
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| 3 |
BMF, Bruno Manser Fonds (2022a). Assessment of the Currently Planned Infrastructure Projects and their negative Impact on the UNESCO World heritage Site of Gunung Mulu National Park. [onine] Basel, Switzerland. Available at: <https://bmf.ch/upload/Kampagnen/Mulu/2022_08_Projects_GMNP_…;
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| 4 |
BMF, Bruno Manser Fonds (2022b). Map of the planned Tutoh dam sites, Current Threats to Gunung Mulu World Heritage Site, Sarawak, Malaysia. Available at: <https://bmf.ch/upload/Kampagnen/Mulu/2022_map_Tutoh_River_D…;
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| 5 |
BMF, Bruno Manser Fonds (2023). Update on new developments in close proximity to the UNESCO World Heritage Site Gunung Mulu National Park (Sarawak, Malaysia) – January 2023. [online] Available at: <https://bmf.ch/upload/Kampagnen/Mulu/2023_01_26_Update_Gunu…;.
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| 6 |
Chen, C.W., Chao, Y.S., Mustapeng, A.M.A., Sapawi, N.M., and Huang, Y.M. (2021). Two New Fern Species from Gunung Mulu National Park, Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo. Systematic Botany, 46(3), 739-749.
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| 7 |
Daniel, O.Z., Heon, S.P., Donnelly, C.A., Bernard, H., Orme, C.D.L., and Ewers, R.M. (2024). Rapid spread of African Swine Fever across Borneo. bioRxiv, 2024-06.
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| 8 |
Donald, R. (2022), Malaysia revokes oil palm concession near UNESCO-listed Bornean park. [online] Mongabay, published online 5 October 2022. Available at: <https://news.mongabay.com/2022/10/malaysia-revokes-oil-palm…;.
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| 9 |
Fukuyama, R., Fukuyama, I., Kurita, T., Kojima, Y., Hossman, Y., Noda, A., & Nishikawa, K. (2021). New herpetofaunal records from Gunung Mulu National Park and its surrounding areas in Borneo. Herpetozoa, 34, 89-96.
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| 10 |
Gill, D.W. (2018). Management Plan for Gunung Buda National Park, Limbang Division, Sarawak, Malaysia. Forest Department Sarawak. 348 pp, 46 Maps, 6 Figures, 21 photographs, 12 Appendices.
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| 11 |
Gill, D.W. (2024). Giant Caves of Gunung Mulu and Buda, Sarawak. Sunway University Press.
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| 12 |
Hamid, A.K., Abdullah, S.D., Ibrahim, S.S. (2023). Control of African Swine Fever in Malaysia. WOAH Malaysia (online). Available at: <https://rr-asia.woah.org/app/uploads/2023/11/malaysia-poste…;.
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| 13 |
IUCN Consultation (2025a). IUCN World Heritage Confidential Consultation: Respondent 1.
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| 14 |
IUCN Consultation (2025b). IUCN World Heritage Confidential Consultation form: Respondent 2.
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| 15 |
Ibrahim, M.S.N., Assim, M.I.S.A., Johari, S., Mohammad, S.K.W., Afandi, S.H.M., & Hassan, S. (2023b). Public awareness on biodiversity conservation and well-being: case of Gunung Mulu National Park, Sarawak. GeoJournal, 88(3), 3471-3496.
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| 16 |
Ibrahim, M.S.N., Johari, S., Adam Assim, M.I.S., Mohammad Afandi, S.H., Khan, W.R., and Hassan, S. (2023a). Community well-being dimensions in Gunung Mulu National Park, Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 10(1), 1-15.
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| 17 |
Laeng, J. (2014). Fire destroys 40ha of forest at Mulu National Park. [online] The Borneo Post, published online 14 August 2014. Available at: <https://www.theborneopost.com/2014/08/14/forest-fire-in-mul…;
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| 18 |
Ling, S. (2024). Sarawak government to stop funding GLCs from 2027, encouraged to seek own revenue. The Star (online). Published 25 June 2024. Available at: <https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2024/06/25/sarawak-g…;.
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| 19 |
Malay Mail (2019). Fire-fighting operations in Sri Aman peatlands continue. Published online 24 September 2019 [online], viewed 1 January 2020. Available at: <https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2019/09/24/fire-fig…;.
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| 20 |
Moulds, T., Anderson, J., Anderson, R., and Nykiel, P. (2014). Preliminary Survey of Cave Fauna in the Gunung Mulu World Heritage Area, Sarawak, Malaysia. September 2014. Conference: Internation Symposium of Subterranean Biology, Jurijilla Mexico.
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| 21 |
Mulu Caves Project (1978 to 2020). Cave exploration of the Gunung Mulu National Park (21 reports). Mulu Caves Project UK.
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| 22 |
Sarawak Forestry Corporation (2020). Sarawak Forestry Corporation [online], Government of Sarawak. Available at: <https://www.sarawakforestry.com/>;. [Accessed 2 January 2020].
|
| 23 |
Sarawak Government Gazette (2000a). The Gunung Buda National Park Notification. No189V.
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| 24 |
Sarawak Government Gazette (2000b). The Gunung Buda National Park Extension. No2250V.
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| 25 |
Sarawak Government Gazette (2011). The Gunung Mulu National Park Extension No2. No2390.
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| 26 |
Sarawak Government Gazette (2012). The Gunung Mulu National Park Extension No1. No15
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| 27 |
State Party of Malaysia (2002). Periodic Reporting Cycle 1, Section II: Gunung Mulu National Park. [online] Paris, France: UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Available at: <https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1013/documents/>;.
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| 28 |
State Party of Malaysia (2012). Periodic Reporting Cycle 2, Section II: Gunung Mulu National Park. [online] Paris, France: UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Available at: <https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1013/documents/>;.
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| 29 |
State Party of Malaysia (2023). Periodic Reporting Cycle 3, Section II: Gunung Mulu National Park. [online] Paris, France: UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Available at: <https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1013/documents/>;.
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| 30 |
Then, S. (2024a). Sarawak Government confirms construction of three more hydroelectric dams. The Vibes. Published online 16 January 2024. Available at: <https://www.thevibes.com/articles/news/100693/sarawak-govt-…;.
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| 31 |
Then, S. (2024b). Sarawak natives need to unite to halt land grabs. The Vibes. Published online 20 August 2024. Available at: <https://www.thevibes.com/articles/news/103175/sarawak-nativ…;.
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| 32 |
Then, S. (2024c). RM3.6b highway from Miri to Mulu National Park to be built. The Vibes. Published online 21 November 2024. Available at: <https://www.thevibes.com/articles/news/104117/200-km-highwa…;
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| 33 |
UNESCO (2001). Report on the State of Conservation of Gunung Mulu National Park, Malaysia. State of Conservation Information System of the World Heritage Centre. [online] Paris, France: UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Available at: <https://whc.unesco.org/en/soc/2499>;.
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| 34 |
World Heritage Committee (2012). Decision 36 COM 8E. Adoption of retrospective Statements of Outstanding Universal Value - Gunung Mulu National Park (Malaysia). [online] Saint Petersburg, Russian Federation: UNESCO. Available at: <https://whc.unesco.org/en/decisions/4841>;. [Accessed October 2019, January 2020].
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Indigenous Heritage values
Penan Community Statement (Penan)
Amé kelunan Penan poho kelunan asen éh moko tong Mulu teu jin poho sahau-sahau tenéh avé hun dau iteu péh, to ke' mé' mihau ngan jaga’ tana’ iteu. Tana’ tong Mulu teu pina mu'un bukti atau tekesi sejarah éh pu'un omk kenejam tapi' kepina néh bé’ jak éh kenejam kelunan éh jah. Amé kelo tutuh tana’ ngereti ngan na'at kineu amé na'at ngan ngereti kineu pena'an mé’ tong tana’ iteu.
Mulu iteu, inah néh éh jah retek oko bu'un, anah amé tana' poho. Ngan kekat tepun mé’ poko éh ngan amé hun iteu jadi jah pewaris éh sah tong tana’ iteu. Irah tepun mé’ sahau inah réh maneu ngaran tong ba, tong berusu', tong tokong éh uban kelakau réh. Anak-anak mé’ pu'un éh keloho atau kenanak réh tong tana' teu kenat ke' tepun atau irah ja'au mé’ hun réh matai, siteu néh réh modo réh. Amé to nesen ngaran kekat opo ngan tepun mé' nah ngan kekat retek éh uban réh murip ngan kelakau sahau. Bé’ éh inah awah, amé to nesen tapan néh barei bua ngan kayeu éh nulah ngan neté réh ngaran ngan retek semah réh paleu ngan kura-kura retek péh semah réh tenanem réh. Kekat ineu-ineu éh gunah mé’ jalan mé’ omok murip, omok mé’ ala éh tong tana’. Avé hun dau iteu, mé’ to ke’ murip nekapén ngan gunah kekat éh tong tana’ teu.
Tapi’ hun mah irah peritah ngan kelunan sa’ usit bara’, kineu gaya’ mé’ murip terutama néh gaya’ pengurip mé’ paso jin jah retek tai jah retek. Inah réh bara’ mé’ lakau sebarang awah. Lakau bé’ pu'un reti. Lakau bé’ pu'un pengejam awah. Tapi’ bé’ éh kenat. Pu'un péh mé’ murip lakau tai jah retek ngan jah retek nah, inah mé’ lakau tong retek éh kenejam mé’ ngan ke’ doko ke’ kekat ineu-ineu éh gunah mé’ pu'un éh omok murip maréng, nyeka maréng kepéh hun mé’ tai jah retek éh jah-jah. Iteu ke’ doko néh ke’ néh omok pu'un avé pelinguh-linguh. Kineu gaya’ pengihau ngan pengava mé’ tana’ teu inah néh adet mé’ jin sahau. Ju jin bé’ jak néh petekedéng jadi Gunung Mulu National Park ngan ju bé’ jak kelunan saˈ usit tuai nyaˋap keˊ irah péh kuaˊ ngan mé’ mihau tana’ iteu. Lem ha’ amé, gaya’ pengurip mé’ éh ka’ teu inah éh mihau - jaga’, modo, ala bahat. Mihau inah néh ngajen mé’ doko ala ineu éh gunah awah. Bé’ mé’ omok ngeburah. Bé’ mé’ omok ala lebih jin ineu éh poho gunah mé’, dai néh metat ngan bé’ lah pu'un. Pu'un jah kepéh, inah mé’ murip molong. Molong inah éh tena’ mé’ kineu mé’ mihau. Hun mah mé’ temeu ngan jah kayeu bua éh maréng atau arong éh tong tana’ éh gunah mé’, inah mé’ bara’ éh anah amé. Uban néh anah amé, inah mé’ tekep mihau ngan jaga’ é'éh ke’ néh omok pu’un nakai pemanak mé’ éh jah, kenat péh ke’ néh omok pu'un avé tai pengurip anak ayam mé’ sa’ tenah. Pengelakau mé’ lem jah retek tai jah retek nah, uban mé’ jam kekat éh nolong mé’ nah éh. Tana’ tong Mulu pu'un éh avé ibu kekat éh gunah mé’ éh nolong opo ngan tepun mé’ jin bu'un sahau avé urip mé’ hun iteu péh to ke’ mé’ gunah éh.
Jah ke’ kepéh, pu'un ibu kekat retek éh kenejam mé’ tong Mulu teu éh omok bara’ kineu mé’ to ke’ pu'un matek tepih ngan tepun mé’ sahau. Inah mé’ bara’ tebai éh tawai. Amé to seruh réh pu'un réh tong retek éh tekun kelakau réh. Hun mah mé’ menéng ha’ tong tana’, hun mah mé’ ngelava retek éh tekun kelakau ngan hun mah mé’ na'at kayeu éh agat tepun mé’, inah mé’ seleket mé’ na'at réh. Tapi’ hun mah kelunan sa’ usit na'at éh, tena'an réh barei tana’ usan awah éh.
Jah likap éh nala mé’ dai suket, adet ngan pengurip mé’ bé’ kelepan, inah mé’ nyurat kekat néh. Amé nengayet maneu jah kerja lakau lem tana’. Lem kerja mé’ nah pu'un irah mukun ngan pu'un irah anak éh jam nyurat ngan jam tong GPS. Pu'un 1000 muta ngaran ngan retek éh lepah naneu mé' na’ péh kenat to ke’ éh pina to juk pesabung mé’. Kereja mé’ iteu bé’ éh ke’ néh nojo kineu pengurip mé’ mihau Mulu teu awah, tapi’ jah likap ke’ anak lemanai omok belajen tong suket ngan adet asen dai néh kelepan réh.
Ame kelunan poho puku’ tana’ Mulu, amé lepah mihau Mulu ngan kekat pengejian éh lem néh jin sahau. Kekat pengejian éh lepah kenakun kelunan tipo tana’ pu'un jian. Amé tio-tio mihau éh. Mulu iteu néh seleket lamin mé’ ngan seleket tiki éh lena poléng, ngan jah tengayet mé’ amé kuaˈ kenin ngan pengelo UNESCO éh juk mihau Mulu teu ngan kekat ayam luˈ vam. Penan omok nya'ap mukap maten kelunan usit doko na'at tong tana' jin jah kenin éh tengé jin kalai irah. Kenat péh, amé Penan omok nya'ap kelunan tong taman kineu ayo lu' mihau mava Mulu.
Penan Community Statement (English)
We Penan have been the inhabitants of Mulu since time immemorial and we continue to care for these lands. The forests of Mulu are filled with evidence of our long history here, but we recognize that others do not see this. We want the world to understand what this land means to us.
Mulu is our place of origin (oko bu’un), our ancestral land (tana’ pohoo), and our ancestors left it to us as the rightful heirs. They gave names to all the rivers, ridges, and mountains. Our children were born here and our parents and grandparents were buried here. We still remember the names of our ancestors and the places they lived, which fruit trees they cared for, where they made sago, and where they are buried. All the things we need to survive are provided by the forest, and we continue to rely on the forest to this day.
When the government and outsiders talk about our traditional nomadic way of life, they say that we “roamed” or “wandered” in the forest. What they don’t understand is that our movements were based on actively managing resources to ensure that they lasted in perpetuity. This stewardship of the land is something we Penan have practiced for generations -long before the Gunung Mulu National Park had been established, and long before any external parties came to support the conservation of this landscape. We call this ethical principle mihau - to protect, preserve, or care for. Mihau mandates that we should take from the forest only what we need and no more, while molong is the set of practices that guide how we mihau. When we discover a new fruit tree or other resource, we claim it. Thereafter we have a responsibility to care for it so that it is available for use by our families and future generations. Our movements were guided by knowledge of where we could find molong resources. The forests of Mulu are full of thousands of resources that our ancestors molong over generations.
Further, the thousands of places we know in Mulu connect us to our ancestors through the sense of longing (tawai) we feel when we go to places that we once shared with them. When we hear the sounds of the forest or see trees our ancestors loved, it connects us to our deceased loved ones and to places that outsiders see only as forest.
To ensure that our heritage in Mulu is not erased, we are now documenting it. We have organized ourselves into groups with elders who know our history working with younger members of our community who are able to write and use GPS. So far, we have documented over 1000 named sites and this project is ongoing. Not only do our documentation efforts show the ways we value Mulu, but it also teaches younger generations about our history so that they do not forget.
As the inhabitants of the forests of Mulu, we have played a key role in protecting the ecological integrity of this globally valued ecosystem, and we continue to do. Mulu is more than home and our birthright, and as part of our collective responsibility towards this landscape, we share UNESCO’s goal to mihau Mulu for future generations. We believe we can help visitors see the forest through new eyes and provide guidance to park authorities on how best to manage this landscape in perpetuity.