Macquarie Island
Country
Australia
Inscribed in
1997
Criteria
(vii)
(viii)
The conservation outlook for this site has been assessed as "good" in the latest assessment cycle. Explore the Conservation Outlook Assessment for the site below. You have the option to access the summary, or the detailed assessment.
Macquarie Island (34 km long x 5 km wide) is an oceanic island in the Southern Ocean, lying 1,500 km south-east of Tasmania and approximately halfway between Australia and the Antarctic continent. The island is the exposed crest of the undersea Macquarie Ridge, raised to its present position where the Indo-Australian tectonic plate meets the Pacific plate. It is a site of major geoconservation significance, being the only place on earth where rocks from the earth’s mantle (6 km below the ocean floor) are being actively exposed above sea-level. These unique exposures include excellent examples of pillow basalts and other extrusive rocks. © UNESCO
Summary
2025 Conservation Outlook
Finalised on
11 Oct 2025
Good
Current state and trend of VALUES
Low Concern
Overall THREATS
Overall PROTECTION and MANAGEMENT
Full assessment
Description of values
Outstanding spectacle of wild, natural beauty
Criterion
(vii)
Macquarie Island provides an outstanding spectacle of wild, natural beauty with steep wind-sculpted escarpments which rise spectacularly to a plateau surface dotted with innumerable lakes, tarns and pools (World Heritage Committee, 2012).
Extensive peat beds
Criterion
(vii)
A coastal terrace supports vast waterlogged and heavily vegetated areas, forming a mire based on deep peat beds known as ‘featherbed” (World Heritage Committee, 2012).
Dramatic changes in vegetation cover due to climatic conditions
Criterion
(vii)
Changes in topography result in dramatic changes in the vegetation cover which can vary from lush grassland to sparse feldmark within the space of a few metres (World Heritage Committee, 2012).
Vast congregations of wildlife
Criterion
(vii)
Huge congregations of penguins and seals form during the breeding season, with King and Gentoo Penguins remaining year-round (World Heritage Committee, 2012; State Party of Australia, 1996). The breeding population of Royal Penguins (Eudyptes schlegeli), a species endemic to Macquarie Island and nearby Bishop and Clerk Islets, is estimated at approx. 750,000 pairs (Salton et al., 2019), one of the greatest congregations of seabirds in the world. The breeding population of King Penguins (Aptenodytes patagonicus), estimated at around 150,000–170,000 breeding pairs at its estimated peak in 2000 (World Heritage Committee, 2012). Macquarie Island is the only king penguin breeding location in the Pacific sector of the Southern Ocean, and is home to an estimated 10% of global breeding pairs (Pascoe et al. 2022).
Unique geological features associated with oceanic crust formation
Criterion
(viii)
Macquarie Island and its outlying islets are the only place on earth where rocks from oceanic lithosphere are exposed above sea level while still attached to the seafloor. These provide an exceptionally complete section of the structure and composition of both the oceanic crust and the upper mantle. A record of seafloor spreading and the tectonic processes that have operated in this region for the last ten million years is preserved and available to study. While exposed oceanic crust is found elsewhere on earth, all other examples are in the form of an ophiolite – seafloor that has been thrust onto continental crust during mountain building events, resulting in significant deformation and metamorphic overprinting (Goscombe et al 2024). The geology of the island is therefore considered to be the connecting link between the ophiolites of continental environments and the oceanic crust from which they were derived (World Heritage Committee, 2012).
Albatrosses, petrels and skuas
Four species of albatross, including the critically endangered wandering albatross (Diomedea exulans), endangered Grey-headed albatross (Diomedea chrysostoma), near threatened Black-browed albatross (Thalassarche melanophrys), and near threatened Light-mantled sooty albatrosses (Phoebetria palpebrata) breed on Macquarie Island. Fourteen, (State Party of Australia, 1996) or 9 certain and 4 probable (PWS, 2006) species of petrels breed on the island. Macquarie Island has the highest proportion of white-morph southern giant petrels in the world (Australian Antactic Division, 2013), and accounts for 10-19% of the global southern giant petrels and 3–9% northern giant petrel population (Trebilco et al., 2008). The brown skua (Stercorarius antarcticus) also breeds on the island (World Heritage Committee, 2012; State Party of Australia, 1996; PWS, 2006; Andersson, 1999).
Imperial Shag
An endemic subspecies of Imperial Shag (Leucocarbo albiventer purpurascens) breeds on Macquarie Island and nearby Bishop and Clerk Islets. Some taxonomic debate as to whether this is a subspecies or species (State Party of Australia, 1996; PWS, 2006; DSEWPC, 2012).
Endemic flora
The island has 47 species of native vascular plants of which 4 are endemic. Three of these endemic species are listed as threatened: Macquarie Cushions (Azorella macquariensis) that have been considered a keystone species of the extensive feldmark vegetation, and 2 species of orchids (the Windswept Helmet-orchid (Corybas dienemum) and the Grooved Helmet-orchid (Corybas sulcatum)). Macquarie Island is the most southerly location recorded for naturally occurring orchids in the world (State Party of Australia,1996; PWS, 2006; Clements & Jones, 2007; Clements et al., 2007; Carmichael, 2007).
Pinnipeds
Macquarie Island is the only island where all three fur seals have established, breeding populations - the Antarctic fur seal (Arctocephalus gazella), Sub-Antarctic fur seal (Arctocephalus tropicalis) and New Zealand fur seals (Arctocephalus forsteri).
The population of southern elephant seals (Mirounga leonina) that breed on Macquarie Island represent around 10% of the global population. Both leopard seals (Hydruga leptoynx) and New Zealand sea lions (Phocarctos hookeri) frequently visit the island, while Weddell and crab-eater seals occasionally visit (Parks & Wildlife Service Tasmania, 2024).
The population of southern elephant seals (Mirounga leonina) that breed on Macquarie Island represent around 10% of the global population. Both leopard seals (Hydruga leptoynx) and New Zealand sea lions (Phocarctos hookeri) frequently visit the island, while Weddell and crab-eater seals occasionally visit (Parks & Wildlife Service Tasmania, 2024).
Penguins
Four species of penguin breed on Macquarie Island. The royal penguin (Eudyptes schlegeli) is endemic to the island, with an estimated population at 750,037 breeding pairs (range 669,538–830,154 pairs) (Salton et al; 2019). Macquarie Island is the only breeding ground in the pacific sector of the Southern Ocean for the king penguin (Aptenodytes patagonicus). Macquarie Island is home to around 10% of the world's king penguin population (Pascoe et al. 2022). It is also the only breeding ground in the pacific sector of the Southern Ocean for the IUCN listed vulnerable gentoo penguin (Pygoscelis papua), and breeding grounds for the IUCN listed endangered southern rockhopper penguin (Eudyptes chrysocome). Three non-breeding species of penguins visit the island, these include the chinstrap penguin (Pygoscelis antarcticus), erect-crested penguin (Eudyptes sclateri) and little penguin (Eudyptula minor) (Parks & Wildlife Service Tasmania, 2024).
Assessment information
The current threats to the values of the property are generally low, with a few exceptions. The threat of alien and invasive species represents a lower threat than in previous years, following the Macquarie Island Pest Eradication Project (MIPEP), and subsequent monitoring declared successful eradication of targeted pests, continued vegetation recovery response (aiding in the slowing down of land slippage) and increasing non-target species recovery. Invasive redpolls and starling were predicted to increase following MIPEP and this may impact macro-invertebrates and vegetation (including seed dispersal), however these interactions have not been studied. Monitoring and management should focus on the increase in some invasive alien invertebrate species, as well as potential invasive species in marine debris. Given the high management capacity most anthropogenic threats to the island, apart from climate change, are likely reduced in the short to medium-term. Continued die-back of the cushion plants – a keystone species and continued decline of the Southern elephant seal population is likely. Climate change is now recognised as a primary causative factor in the initial die back of A. macquariensis, and may be having as of yet unquantified impacts on other factors e.g. hydrology and geomorphic processes, which contribute to the values of the site.
Fishing, Harvesting & Controlling Aquatic Species
(Long-line fishing)
Other targeted species names
Light-mantled sooty albatross, Phoebetria palpebrata; Wandering albatross, Diomedea exulans; Black-browed albatross, Thalassarche melanophris; Grey-headed albatross, Thalassarche chrysostoma
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Outside site
The main extractive use within the waters is commercial fishing, targeting Patagonian toothfish (Dissostichus eleginoides). In the Macquarie Island Toothfish Fishery, fishers use longline fishing gear (demersal or bottom longline) (AFMA, 2020), bottom trawling has been discontinued since 2009 (REF) and banned in the Commonwealth Macquarie Island Marine Park which covers the full Australian EEZ. The fishery has received MSC certification since 2012 (SCC, 2012). Historically longline fishing was a major threat to seabirds (PWS, 2006; DEWR, 2006), but no interactions with seabirds or marine mammals have been recorded in the past five years (MSC 2022). The Australian Fisheries Management Authority state that no target, bycatch, byproduct or protected species is considered to be at high risk from the effects of fishing in the Macquarie Island demersal fishery, given the suite of management and conservation initiatives that are in place for the fishery (AFMA, 2019). Trophic interactions for seabirds and seals have been considered for the area, and found trophic linkages generally weak, however, with current and ongoing climate-driven environmental change in the Southern Ocean, this may need to be considered in management (Subramaniam et al., 2020).
An assessment of the benthic impacts from fishing around Macquarie Island found that the removal of benthic fauna from the combination of trawling and demersal longlining was no more than 3% of biomass, but also noted the uncertainty in this estimate (Welsford et al. 2014).
The most recent stock assessment shows a gradual decline in abundance of toothfish since the start of fishing. The model estimates the current median depletion of female spawning biomass at 0.7 (range 0.65 to 0.76) relative to unfished levels (Hillary and Day 2021).
An assessment of the benthic impacts from fishing around Macquarie Island found that the removal of benthic fauna from the combination of trawling and demersal longlining was no more than 3% of biomass, but also noted the uncertainty in this estimate (Welsford et al. 2014).
The most recent stock assessment shows a gradual decline in abundance of toothfish since the start of fishing. The model estimates the current median depletion of female spawning biomass at 0.7 (range 0.65 to 0.76) relative to unfished levels (Hillary and Day 2021).
Invasive / Other Problematic Species, Genes & Pathogens, Invasive Non-Native/ Alien Species
(Invasive alien plants, animals and possibly introduced pathogens)
Invasive/problematic species
Acanthis flammea
Sturnus vulgaris
Kontikia andersoni
Cerastium fontanum
Cerastium glomeratum
Poa annua
Stellaria media
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
Eight alien plant species have been recorded in the reserve in recent years, of which four species remain (Visoiu, 2019) and these appear to have limited ecological impact (Williams et al., 2019). Two invasive grass species appear to have been recently successfully eradicated through management actions undertaken by Tasmanian PWS staff (IUCN Consultation, 2020). Historical introductions of non-native animal species have posed threats to the island's flora and fauna of the site in the past. However, introduced weka (a predatory bird) and cats were eradicated by 1989 and 2000 respectively, and rabbits, black rats and mice by 2011 (PWS & BCB, 2007; PWS 2014). Since then, widespread recovery of the islands' vegetation has been observed (Australian Antarctic Division, 2020), and the island remains pest free from cats, rabbits, and rodents (Duigan, 2024). Breeding populations of two alien vertebrate species remain on the island, the common redpoll (Acanthis flammea) and common starling (Sturnus vulgaris). Both are self-introduced populations presumed to have arrived from New Zealand where they are invasive species (Copson & Brothers, 2008). Redpoll and starling numbers were predicted to increase following the eradication of rats, mice and rabbits, however, these species are not monitored. Increases in redpolls and starling may threaten seed dispersal, macro-invertebrates and vegetation on the island (Raymond et al., 2011). There are at least 40 species of established non-native invertebrates on the island (Greenslade, 2006), particularly around human dwellings. At least one species (Kontikia andersoni) has more than doubled its range, and expanded at a rate of ~ 500 m-yr since 2004 (Houghton et al., 2022). Expansion may alter nutrient cycling, pollination and competition with native invertebrates (Houghton et al., 2019).
Changes to the foraging movements of predatory skuas on the island, following the eradication of rabbit prey, may augment their role in pathogen dispersal between prey colonies including the endemic Royal Penguin (Jones & Skira, 1979; Gamble et al., 2019; Travers et al., 2021).
Changes to the foraging movements of predatory skuas on the island, following the eradication of rabbit prey, may augment their role in pathogen dispersal between prey colonies including the endemic Royal Penguin (Jones & Skira, 1979; Gamble et al., 2019; Travers et al., 2021).
Weather & Climate Management, Biological System Management
(Die-back of Azorella macquariensis)
Inside site
, Throughout(>50%)
Outside site
Die-back of Azorella macquariensis has been a serious concern since 2009, with up to 90% of cushions in some locations being affected. The dieback was initially driven by drier and windier conditions caused by climate change, but a shift in fundamental ecosystem processes has seen a secondary putative pathogen emerge as the predominate cause of the dieback (Bergstrom et al., 2021). A small ex-situ conservation population has been established on Macquarie Island and conservation seed accessions collected for permanent storage at the Tasmanian Seed Conservation Centre (Royal Tasmanian Botanical Gardens, 2019). The die-back is expected to cause severe modification to the feldmark ecosystem and is likely to lead to major erosion problems and decline of associated species (TPS, 2009). The dieback levels suggest an ecosystem regime shift with grasslands and bare ground emerging as more dominate (Bergstrom et al., 2021).
Garbage & Solid Waste
(Marine debris (plastics and other))
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Outside site
Marine debris, including plastic bottles, fishing gear and assorted plastics, are frequently found on the shores of the west coast of the island due to prevailing weather conditions, with levels of debris steadily increasing (Australian Antarctic Division, 2023). Research shows that the amount of debris on subantarctic islands is directly proportionate to the level of commercial fishing in the area (Australian Antarctic Division, 2016), 22% of the plastic debris found on the Island in 2012 was discarded or lost fishing gear (Eriksson et al., 2012). The plastic debris is impacting on the pristine natural environment of the island, and has the potential to carry non-native fouling organisms, further exacerbated by rapid warming (Dawson et al., 2024). Plastic particles have been recorded in marine mammal scats and dead seabirds from Macquarie Island since 1990. Some researchers consider the biological accumulation of small plastic pieces through the near-island oceanic foodweb to be a serious concern, similar to that of the accumulation of some pesticides through other marine mammal foodwebs (Eriksson and Burton 2003; Slip and Burton 2009). Marine plastic pollution also carries the risk of seabird and mammal entanglement, particularly with the high levels of fishing gear in the make-up of the island's debris.
Plastic particles have been recorded in marine mammal scats and dead seabirds from Macquarie Island since 1990, and entanglements affecting seabirds and seals have been recorded. Some researchers consider the biological accumulation of small plastic pieces through the near-island oceanic foodweb to be a serious concern, similar to that of the accumulation of some pesticides through other marine mammal foodwebs (Eriksson and Burton 2003; Slip and Burton 2009). PWS has undertaken marine debris monitoring and management since 2005 (State Party of Australia, 2011; IUCN Consultation 2020).
Plastic particles have been recorded in marine mammal scats and dead seabirds from Macquarie Island since 1990, and entanglements affecting seabirds and seals have been recorded. Some researchers consider the biological accumulation of small plastic pieces through the near-island oceanic foodweb to be a serious concern, similar to that of the accumulation of some pesticides through other marine mammal foodwebs (Eriksson and Burton 2003; Slip and Burton 2009). PWS has undertaken marine debris monitoring and management since 2005 (State Party of Australia, 2011; IUCN Consultation 2020).
Changes in Physical & Chemical Regimes, Changes in Temperature Regimes
(Climate change impacts on terrestrial and marine ecosystems)
Inside site
, Throughout(>50%)
Outside site
The island has seen a significant increase in rainfall in recent decades, amounting to an increase of nearly 200 mm since the middle of the last century (around 20%). Consequential changes to streamflow and geomorphic processes in fluvial, lacustrine and wetland systems are to be expected. Increased landslip and peatflow events are a possibility. Temperatures have warmed by approximately 0.5 °C (BOM, 2024). In February 2022, the island recorded a record high temperature of 17°C, which was 3°C hotter than the previous record. The wave climate of the island has also altered, with an increased frequency of large easterly swell causing widespread erosion on the east coast. The changing weather patterns are impacting on the island’s flora and fauna and geomorphology.
Changing precipitation patterns appear to be leading to increased soil moisture and slope instability (Scott & Kirkpatrick, 2013), which may impact the island's geomorphology and endemic vegetation cover. Land based erosion in coastal areas including landslips is leading to instability in seabird nesting and burrow habitats, modifying penguin colonies and landslips are potentially burying seals. Coastal erosion, particularly evident on the east coast, is reducing the width of the eastern coastal terrace. In addition to the geomorphic change, this reduces the available terrestrial habitat for marine mammals and is driving the need to relocate the Station infrastructure on the Isthmus.
Other climate change impacts for fauna include changes in food availability and vegetation distribution (van den Hoff et al., 2014). Impacts from climate change were a lead factor in the dieback of the endemic cushion plant Azorella macquariensis, which could increase the available area for invasive species and lead to ongoing degradation of the terraces which characterise the plateau on the southern half of the island (Bergstrom et al., 2015; IUCN Consultation, 2017, 2024).
Breeding populations of Southern Elephant seals (Mirounga leonina) on Macquarie Island have dropped considerably in the last 30 years, and the change is thought be due to an increase in sea ice in eastern Antarctica, which is impacting on their winter feeding grounds.
The cold waters of the Southern Ocean absorb 40% of human-emitted CO2, and ocean acidification is having a negative impact on animals, like krill and plankton, which are suffering from the corrosive effects of CO2 on their calcium carbonate shells and bodies. This in turn impacts on the food web, as ocean waters warm and krill are forced southward or decline in biomass, the biodiversity that eat krill (e.g. rockhopper penguins, elephant seals) could disappear, as has happened on other sub-Antarctic islands (Osborne, 1997).
Changing precipitation patterns appear to be leading to increased soil moisture and slope instability (Scott & Kirkpatrick, 2013), which may impact the island's geomorphology and endemic vegetation cover. Land based erosion in coastal areas including landslips is leading to instability in seabird nesting and burrow habitats, modifying penguin colonies and landslips are potentially burying seals. Coastal erosion, particularly evident on the east coast, is reducing the width of the eastern coastal terrace. In addition to the geomorphic change, this reduces the available terrestrial habitat for marine mammals and is driving the need to relocate the Station infrastructure on the Isthmus.
Other climate change impacts for fauna include changes in food availability and vegetation distribution (van den Hoff et al., 2014). Impacts from climate change were a lead factor in the dieback of the endemic cushion plant Azorella macquariensis, which could increase the available area for invasive species and lead to ongoing degradation of the terraces which characterise the plateau on the southern half of the island (Bergstrom et al., 2015; IUCN Consultation, 2017, 2024).
Breeding populations of Southern Elephant seals (Mirounga leonina) on Macquarie Island have dropped considerably in the last 30 years, and the change is thought be due to an increase in sea ice in eastern Antarctica, which is impacting on their winter feeding grounds.
The cold waters of the Southern Ocean absorb 40% of human-emitted CO2, and ocean acidification is having a negative impact on animals, like krill and plankton, which are suffering from the corrosive effects of CO2 on their calcium carbonate shells and bodies. This in turn impacts on the food web, as ocean waters warm and krill are forced southward or decline in biomass, the biodiversity that eat krill (e.g. rockhopper penguins, elephant seals) could disappear, as has happened on other sub-Antarctic islands (Osborne, 1997).
Other Human Disturbances
(Australian Antarctic Division station rebuild)
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Quarrying of sand and gravel for construction, roadworks and shore protection works needs to be both minimised and carefully managed to mitigate impacts on geodiversity and biodiversity values. The magnitude of this threat remains unclear as the exact nature of the rebuild does not appear to have been settled (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
Climate change has already been shown to be having significant effects as the islands weather destabilises including changes in rainfall patterns and storm swells. For example, Southern elephant seal population decline has recently been linked to poor foraging success due to changing oceanic conditions perturbing prey availability, and increased and ongoing erosion poses a threat to many of the listed values of the site. There are also the unlikely but increasingly possible events of an oil spill or the introduction of a new alien invasive species or pathogens - specifically avian bird flu that could devastate this very vulnerable ecosystem, despite authorised educational visitation being highly regulated (especially through biosecurity measures); the biosecurity measures and access restrictions are only able to mitigate potential threats from human visitation.
Water-borne & other effluent Pollution
(Oil spills)
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
A Fuel Spill Contingency Plan has been developed for Macquarie Island by the Australian Government Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water’s (DCCEEW) Australian Antarctic Division (AAD ), and steps outlined in the management plan (PWS, 2006; State Party of Australia, 2011) to prevent and manage oil spills, which would have a huge impact on marine life.
Invasive Non-Native/ Alien Species
(New invasive species)
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
Protocols are in place to prevent new introductions to the island from authorized visitation (PWS, 2006) although as experience has shown, with increased human visitation it is increasingly difficult to prevent introductions (particularly plant and invertebrate species and pathogens). The Australian Government DCEEW's AAD biosecurity protocols have been significantly enhanced since 2014 with the construction of new cargo-handling and biosecurity facilities in Hobart (IUCN Consultation, 2017).
Changes in Physical & Chemical Regimes, Changes in Temperature Regimes, Changes in Precipitation & Hydrological Regime
(Increased impacts from climate change for the site)
Inside site
, Throughout(>50%)
Outside site
Future predictions of climate change include impacts across the values and natural environment of the Island. Continuation of the current trends are predicted, with increased threats from damaging weather events, rising temperatures, and increasing precipitation (Adams, 2009). Research has shown Antarctic ports are well-connected to the global shipping network (McCarthy et al., 2022), which are often carriers of alien species, and physiological barriers and defences to the establishment of alien species will likely weaken under future climate change (Duffy, G. A. et al. 2017). Changes to the climate are also projected to increase the impact of invasive alien species on indigenous species into the future (Convey et al., 2019). Ongoing and increasing erosion rates could further impact on the geomorphic component of the natural values of the Island, including the coastal geomorphology and potential impacts to fauna species breeding on coastal beaches.
Pathogens
(Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza)
Outside site
The Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (H5N1 HPAIV subtype) was detected in 2023 in Antarctica and sub-Antarctic islands (South Georgia and the Falkland Islands) (Banyard et al., 2024). The pathogen spreads through highly migratory bird species and has caused mass mortality events in wild birds and marine mammals (Banyard et al., 2024). Brown skuas (Stercorarius antarcticus), kelp gulls (Larus dominicanus), and southern giant petrel (Macronectes giganteus) – species which breed and/or forage at Macquarie Island have previously been identified as potential vectors of infectious pathogens due to their migratory traits and scavenging behaviour. A mutation of the virus has been identified in marine mammals, including sea lions and dolphins in Peru (Leguia et al., 2023), southern elephant seals and Antarctic fur seals on South Georgia Island (Banyard et al., 2024). The virus has not been recorded on Macquarie Island to date.
Involvement of stakeholders and rightsholders, including indigenous peoples and local communities, in decision-making processes
Not applicable - uninhabited island.
Legal framework
The Island, including waters to three nautical miles, is a Tasmanian nature reserve managed by the Tasmania Parks and Wildlife Service (PWS); waters out to 200 nautical miles surrounding the island to the full extent of the Australian Exclusive Economic Zone is the Australian Government managed Macquarie Island Marine Park. The Marine Park is part of the south-east Commonwealth marine parks network and is managed under the South-East Commonwealth Marine Reserves Network Management Plan 2023-33 (Director of National Parks, 2024). Zoning and management arrangements of the Marine Park are complementary to the management of the World Heritage site. The Australian Government's Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act) provides an overarching legal framework for the property (World Heritage Committee, 2010). The overarching management of the property is under the Macquarie Island Nature Reserve and World Heritage Area Management Plan 2006, implemented by the Parks and Wildlife Service (PWS).
Governance arrangements
Day-to-day management of the Macquarie Island Nature Reserve (the island and surrounding waters out to three nautical miles) is the responsibility of the Tasmania PWS within the Department of Natural Resources and Environment Tasmania (NRE Tas). The land mass up to 3 nautical miles off the coast is managed under the Macquarie Island Nature Reserve and World Heritage Area Management Plan (Parks and Wildlife 2006). The waters from 3 to 12 nautical miles, extending to the Islands EEZ are also managed as the Commonwealth Macquarie Island Marine Park under the South-East Marine Region Management Plan. Together, these plans provide overall protection consistent with Australia’s World Heritage obligations. The management prescriptions of the Macquarie Island Marine Park Management Plan complement the prescriptions of the Macquarie Island Nature Reserve and World Heritage Area Management Plan (Parks and Wildlife 2006).
Integration into local, regional and national planning systems (including sea/landscape connectivity)
There is excellent coordination between all bodies / levels involved in the management of the property (State Party of Australia, 2011). In 2023, the entire EEZ surrounding the World Heritage site was designated as a Commonwealth Marine Park, with the majority in IUCN Ia and II zones, only 7% of the EEZ allows commercial fishing.
Boundaries
The property is of sufficient size and contains the necessary elements to demonstrate the key aspects of the geological processes of Macquarie Island and the outlying Bishop and Clerk and Judge and Clerk islets. All major elements of the Macquarie deformational zone are included in the property (World Heritage Committee, 2012).
Overlapping international designations
Not applicable
Implementation of World Heritage Committee decisions and recommendations
All previous committee decisions relating to Macquarie Island have been successfully addressed. In 2013 the World Heritage Committee “expressed its satisfaction about the preliminary results of the Macquarie Island Pest Eradication Plan”. However, the Committee also recommended “to include the monitoring of outcomes to confirm the continued recovery of the property’s vegetation and ecosystems” (37COM 7B.11). This information is now available in the Evaluation Report: Macquarie Island Pest Eradication Project (PWS 2014).
Climate action
While Australia has various national policies for climate action and mitigation, there is no climate action specified for the World Heritage area. A toolkit has been developed for World Heritage properties in Australia (DCCEEW, 2022), but there is no public information on the creation of a toolkit for Macquarie Island. Funding has been provided to upgrade the scientific research station to allow for improved capacity to monitor climate and greenhouse gas emissions, and accurately forecast droughts and rainfall on the island (Plibersek, 2024). Funding was provided in 2021 for 7-years through the Australian Research Council as a Special Research Initiative to an Antarctic research program to understand the changes taking place across the Antarctic region – to its climate and its biodiversity – and develop innovative ways to forecast, mitigate and manage these changes (SAEF, 2021).
Management plan and overall management system
The Macquarie Island Nature Reserve and World Heritage Area Management Plan from 2006 is still the current management plan for the Island and coastal waters. This should be revised and updated more regularly to reflect ongoing changes to the region and the management needs. PWS intends to commence a review of the Management Plan in 2025-26 (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
The management plan for the Macquarie Island Commonwealth Marine Reserve includes a portion of the World Heritage Area, which extends over waters from 3 to 12 nm. The Commonwealth management plan was updated in 2025.
The management plan for the Macquarie Island Commonwealth Marine Reserve includes a portion of the World Heritage Area, which extends over waters from 3 to 12 nm. The Commonwealth management plan was updated in 2025.
Law enforcement
Enforcement of the visitation management protocols for the island are highly effective. All authorised visits to Macquarie Island are well regulated, especially with regard to access and biosecurity.
Sustainable finance
Funding can be considered sustainable for the medium–long term as the DCCEEW's AAD has agreed to continue their scientific presence on Macquarie Island, and to provide up to AUD$50 million to build a new research station, including decommissioning of the old buildings. The majority of the planned renovation work is expected to be fully operational by 2032 (Antarctica, 2024). This commitment was increased to $371M in 2024 with the majority of the works to commence following PWS assessment (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
Further State funding would enable more effective management to international best practice standard. The AAD station is an infrastructure element that will enable support for science/research programmes, but is not funded as a management initiative per se (IUCN Consultation, 2017).
Further State funding would enable more effective management to international best practice standard. The AAD station is an infrastructure element that will enable support for science/research programmes, but is not funded as a management initiative per se (IUCN Consultation, 2017).
Staff capacity, training and development
Good for the medium term, for the long term the available budget is sufficient but further funding would enable more effective management and monitoring to international best practice standard (State Party of Australia, 2011)
Education and interpretation programmes
Education programmes are adequate and focus on researchers, tourists and the tourism industry (State Party of Australia, 2023). The NSW state Syllabus for the Australian Curriculum Geography K - 10 has a component focusing on the World Heritage site (State library of NSW, 2024)
Tourism and visitation management
Macquarie Island Nature Reserve is a restricted area under Tasmanian legislation in order to protect its unique natural and historic values. A small number of commercial educational tourist cruise ships are allowed to visit the island each summer and these provide an opportunity for people to witness the spectacular wildlife first hand. Interested operators can register their interest to be notified of the commencement of the process by contacting the Parks and Reserves Manager - Macquarie Island. Each year there is a call for Expressions of Interest (EOI) from Commercial Tourist Operators interested in conducting Educational Tourist Visits to the Macquarie Island Nature Reserve and World Heritage Area. The EOI process includes selection criteria and guidelines for educational tourist visits for interested operators. They are updated annually in conjunction with the annual EOI process (Tasmania Parks and Wildlife Service, 2025).
Visitation demand has increased in recent years (IUCN consultation, 2024). Visitors to the Island must have an access authority, or be accompanied by an authorised person, to enter the Island reserve. All commercial educational tourist operators must obtain a business licence. Current visitation is restricted to 12 ships with numbers able to change annually (per financial year) (NRET, 2022). Managers report good links with tour operators, and educational tourism visitor fees directly contribute to management (IUCN Consultation, 2017).
Visitation demand has increased in recent years (IUCN consultation, 2024). Visitors to the Island must have an access authority, or be accompanied by an authorised person, to enter the Island reserve. All commercial educational tourist operators must obtain a business licence. Current visitation is restricted to 12 ships with numbers able to change annually (per financial year) (NRET, 2022). Managers report good links with tour operators, and educational tourism visitor fees directly contribute to management (IUCN Consultation, 2017).
Sustainable use
Not applicable
Monitoring
Ongoing monitoring is good albeit highly dependent on ongoing funding support (PWS, 2014). Data collection and monitoring of the hydrogeological regime, soil moisture, land slipping and erosion rates has been undertaken (Comfort, 2014), however, has not been updated since 2017 (IUCN consultation, 2024). Post eradication monitoring also continues to track recovery of the island's ecosystem through annual monitoring of vegetation, seabird and marine mammal species undertaken by the PWS and researchers (Australian Antarctic Division, 2019; 2020; Visoiu, 2019). However, due to funding limitations, the viability of this ongoing monitoring is uncertain (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
Research
Research is ongoing, and receives funding through investment in upgrading the research station, and the Australian Research Council as a Special Research Initiative to understand the changes taking place across the Antarctic region – to its climate and its biodiversity – and develop innovative ways to forecast, mitigate and manage these changes (SAEF, 2021). However, Australian Research Council hasn't undertaken any activities on the island since 2022-23. Research on Macquarie Island in recent years has focussed on conservation and environmental management through a variety of studies investigating how the island has responded to the long-term pest eradication programs of cats, rabbits, ship rats and mice. Other scientific programs on Macquarie Island include examining changes in the atmosphere, analysing geological processes and investigating remediation technologies for fuel spill and metal contamination (AAD, 2021). Research gaps still remain for trophic implication from commercial fishing on marine mammals and seabirds under climate change, and on invasive species impacts, including invertebrates and invasive redpoll and starling populations on macro-invertebrate communities and vegetation (Raymond et al., 2011). The soils and geomorphology are poorly documented, with potential climate change impacts on the landscape including coastal erosion, and degradation of the aesthetically striking terrace systems that dominate the southern parts of the island.
Effectiveness of management system and governance in addressing threats outside the site
The 2023 expansion of the Commonwealth Marine Reserve to cover the entire EEZ in a marine park, with the majority (93%) in high-protected sanctuary zones (IUCN Ia and IUCN II), has improved the management of threats outside the site. The fishery has strong management to minimise harm to seabirds and marine mammals.
Effectiveness of management system and governance in addressing threats inside the site
Strong management mechanisms are in place to ensure sustainable visitation and use of the Island and surrounding waters. Furthermore, a Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) preparedness planning is in place. In addition to the Readiness and Response Plan, the state has developed internal response plans and is undertaking scenario based planning exercises (IUCN Consultation, 2025). There is a need to update the 2006 management plan to be in line with current and future management needs, which planned to commence in 2025-2026.
Protection and management on Macquarie Island is highly effective. The success of the non-native species eradication program is an excellent example of best practice in the field of invasive biology. Ongoing monitoring is being undertaken for the outcomes of the eradication program to track the recovery of the site’s values and preparedness for future potential threats, however monitoring gaps still exist in regards to threats posed by invasive bird and invertebrate populations. The investment in the new research station on the island shows the long term commitment of the Australian Government DCCEEW’s Australian Antarctic Division along with the Tasmanian Government (through NRE Tas) to conserving the Outstanding Universal Value of Macquarie Island. The 2006 management plan requires revision and update, however this process is envisioned to start in 2025-2026.
Good practice examples
Rabbits, rats and mice have been eradicated from the island and the strategies and outcomes now contribute to the eradication success literature and can be considered an example of best practice (PWS, 2014). The monitoring of ecosystem recovery on Macquarie Island represents the gold standard in invasive biology and has shown that the eradication success alone does not guarantee ecosystems will recover to their pre-invaded state. 2024 is the ten year anniversary of the Macquarie Island Pest Eradication Project being declared a success (Tasmania P, 2024).
Outstanding spectacle of wild, natural beauty
Low Concern
Trend
Improving
The island’s landscapes, especially the steep coastal slopes which provide a backdrop to the spectacular wildlife congregations along the beaches, had experienced damage in the past. This trend is now reversing following the success of the eradication program and all current signs are positive for regeneration (PWS, 2014; Springer, 2016; Australian Antarctic Division, 2020).
Extensive peat beds
Low Concern
Trend
Improving
The extensive peat beds are improving in status as loss of vegetation is reversing since 2011 (IUCN Consultation, 2017).
Dramatic changes in vegetation cover due to climatic conditions
High Concern
Trend
Deteriorating
The dieback of the Macquarie cushion plants (Whinam et al., 2014a; Dickson et al., 2019) is of great concern. A report in 2021 found the unique alpine tundra cushion plants and bryophytes that dominate this treeless ecosystem are rapidly collapsing due to mass die-off of cushion plants. Climate change impacts and disease have devastated much of this fragile ecosystem, compromising the Outstanding Universal Value (Bergstrom et al., 2021) Macquarie cushion plants are a keystone species in the feldmark, and their loss is resulting in potentially permanent state change to the feldmark ecosystem on the island, potentially including damage to the visually dramatic terrace systems common on the south of the island. However, aside from the Azorella macquariensis dieback, Macquarie Island vegetation is significantly improving and is in the best shape it has been for over a century, now that rabbit grazing and rodent impacts have ceased (Springer, 2016).
Vast congregations of wildlife
Low Concern
Trend
Deteriorating
Macquarie Island remains an important site for the many species of marine wildlife that congregate on the island. Breeding success of albatrosses has increased since the eradication programme (Australian Antarctic Division, 2019; Cleeland et al., 2020). Marine pollution, particularly ingested plastics, is an increasing concern (Isobe et al., 2017). Fishing around sub-Antarctic islands may also adversely affect the species. The population of the Royal Penguin has been estimated at 750,037 breeding pairs (range 669,538–830,154 pairs) (Salton et al., 2019). Although it is difficult to understand the population trend for this species due to a lack of quality historical data, recent accurate population estimates (Salton et al, 2019) will inform future understanding of the population trends of this endemic species. King penguin population counts since 2007 have shown a decline in the number of chicks annually, but it is unknown if this is due to carrying capacity or population declines, but lower chick numbers were correlated with higher rainfall events and wave height during incubation, along with more storm events and warmer sea surface temperatures (Pascoe et al., 2022). The global conservation status for King Penguins (Aptenodytes patagonicus) is Least Concern (Birdlife International, 2018b; 2018c), and Southern Rockhopper (Eudyptes chrysocome) is Vulnerable (Birdlife International, 2018d). The published census of Gentoo (Pygoscelis papua) in 2017 recorded the fewest breeding pairs since counts began, with 2527 ± 66 Gentoo pairs island wide. Subsequent monitoring (NRE Tas, unpublished) in 2021 recorded 2403 pairs. Island-wide breeding pairs have decreased by − 1.8 ± 0.4% per annum over the past 34 years (Pascoe et al., 2020). Macquarie Island remains an important site for all of these species. There are very small breeding populations of Antarctic, sub-Antarctic and New Zealand fur seals that appear stable but Southern elephant seal numbers were in decline as of 2017 (Clausius et al., 2017). The last whole island census (2021) recorded 9863 breeding females and is consistent with previous findings indicating an ongoing population decrease between 1 to 2% per annum .
Unique geological features associated with oceanic crust formation
Good
Trend
Stable
The geological features of Macquarie Island remain in good condition and stable (Comfort, 2014).
Assessment of the current state and trend of World Heritage values
Improving
The geological values for which the site is inscribed remain unchanged and in good condition, whilst the natural beauty and ecosystem related values are variable - both improving in some aspects due to ongoing recovery of the native vegetation, but declining populations and vegetation cover and increased erosion are likely due to changing climate impacts. The landscape is recovering in terms of vegetation cover; largely due to the successful eradication programme; with the majority of the island's vegetation rapidly returning to a natural state, except feldmark where die-back of Azorella macquariensis and potential degradation of the associated terrace systems continues to be an issue of concern. Vast congregations of wildlife appear to be stable or declining, with the driver unknown.
Assessment of the current state and trend of other important biodiversity values
High Concern
Data Deficient
The important biodiversity values of the property are for the most part stable and are broadly stable to improving following the eradication of invasive animal species, with a few exceptions. Some albatross species and grey petrel are still at some risk to long-line fisheries, as they are circumpolar foragers, but risks to them within the site have reduced and grey petrel numbers and breeding success have increased in the last decade. The status of the extremely small breeding population of wandering albatross (Diomedea exulans, globally VU) with 5-10 pairs breeding on the island is currently uncertain, with relative trends in numbers and survival in the past similar to those observed in the Indian Ocean populations, prior to an apparent decline in recent years (for the conservation status of all Macquarie Island albatrosses and petrels see ACAP, 2017). Additional research should focus on population trends with changing climate impacts and fish stock in the region.
The die-back of the Macquarie cushion (Azorella macquariensis) has continued to progress and remains a growing concern, with only very limited recovery evident. In the longest and worst affected areas up to 90% of cushions have been lost. However, the level of impact is variable, particularly in the south of the island and some small areas remain which are still only lightly impacted (Dickson et al., 2019). The root cause has now been attributed to climate change interacting with a pathogen (Whinam et al., 2014a; Dickson et al. 2019). The exact interactions are however not yet resolved.
The die-back of the Macquarie cushion (Azorella macquariensis) has continued to progress and remains a growing concern, with only very limited recovery evident. In the longest and worst affected areas up to 90% of cushions have been lost. However, the level of impact is variable, particularly in the south of the island and some small areas remain which are still only lightly impacted (Dickson et al., 2019). The root cause has now been attributed to climate change interacting with a pathogen (Whinam et al., 2014a; Dickson et al. 2019). The exact interactions are however not yet resolved.
Additional information
Fishing areas and conservation of fish stocks
The marine reserve of 3 nautical miles around the island provides a fish reserve in addition to the recently expanded marine park surrounding the island, which is the largest “no-take” fishing zone in the region. The current Toothfish fishery is considered sustainable (AFMA 2017).
Wilderness and iconic features
Although very small numbers of visitors and staff benefit from this due to the high inaccessibility of the island, those that manage to get to the island can appreciate its iconic wilderness.
Importance for research
Much scientific research has been carried out on the island and will continue into the longer term. Specifically, the site has benefits for Southern Ocean atmospheric, meteorological and biological research.
However, it needs to be acknowledged that the research station's infrastructure continues to pose a threat to wildlife, particularly a risk of seabird strike from antenna and associated support wires (IUCN consultation, 2024). The development of a new Research Station in alignment with PWS requirements and approval should address these risks.
Contribution to education
Although visitation is low, documentaries made on the island have addressed a far wider public. A new cohort of young researchers are active on social media and are adept at communicating and promoting the values of Macquarie Island to a broader audience (IUCN Consultation, 2020b).
History and tradition
Macquarie Island has internationally significant historic heritage with outstanding examples of early steam digester technology at several sites, such as Hurd Point, Lusitania Bay, The Isthmus and the Nuggets (Nash 2003; Carmichael, 2007).
Provision of jobs,
Tourism-related income
Approximately 25-30 staff in summer and 20-25 in winter work on the island. Educational tourist visitation demand has increased in recent years.
However, it needs to be acknowledged that the ongoing presence of people and the need to maintain the station infrastructure are a threat to the island's habitat and an ongoing source of pollution.
The principal benefits are conservation of a unique wilderness with high biodiversity and geological values which have been thoroughly documented to the wider public. Knowledge generated through research and active management, such as the pest eradication campaign, has greatly benefited conservation management elsewhere.
| № | Organization | Brief description of Active Projects | Website |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Threatened Species Recovery Hub, National Environmental Science Programme (Australian Government), Australian Antarctic Division (Australian Government), University of Tasmania, University of Queensland, Tasmanian Parks and Wildlife Service (Tasmanian Government) | Post-eradication ecosystem monitoring Sub-Antarctic Macquarie Island has been the object of Australia’s most ambitious and expensive eradication programs ending in 2014, with cats, rats, mice and rabbits eradicated. The expectation is that the island’s biodiversity will bounce back, yet it is unknown how this will occur for specific species. For example, a native predator, the brown skua, lost one of its main prey source, rabbits, and several hundred were incidentally killed by eating poisoned rabbit carcasses. Monitoring the ecosystem response to eradication will inform the future management of Macquarie Island. Learning from the post-eradication response of Macquarie Island will also provide important insights that can be applied in the planning of other island eradication projects. This project will examine different aspects of species and ecosystem recovery on the island following the eradication program, including vegetation, invertebrates, threatened burrowing petrels and a native predator, the brown skua. By quantifying the benefits and impacts of the eradication, the lessons learned from our research will form important guidance for future island eradication programs in Australia and world-wide. All field work is now complete, and the project is in its final phase of publishing results. |
https://www.nespthreatenedspecies.edu.au/projects/post-eradication-monitoring-on-macquarie-island
|
| 2 | Tasmanian Government Department of Natural Resources and Environment Tasmania (Tasmania Parks and Wildlife Service, Marine Conservation Program, and Environment Division) | Long-term monitoring programs for a range of Macquarie Island species including all breeding seal species (e.g. Southern elephant seals (Mirounga leonina); three species of Fur seal (Arctocephalus spp.)) and a range of priority bird species (e.g. Wandering albatross (Diomedea exulans); Black-browed albatross (Thalassarche melanophrys); Grey-headed Albatross (Thalassarche chrysostoma); Light-mantled albatross (Phoebetria palpebrata): Northern Giant Petrels (Macronectes halli); Southern Giant Petrels (Macronectes giganteus); Royal penguins (Eudyptes schlegeli); King penguins (Aptenodytes patagonica); Gentoo Penguins (Pygoscelis papua); Rockhopper penguins (Eudyptes chrysocome); Imperial shag (Leucocarbo albiventer purpurascens); Brown skua (Stercorarius antarcticus lonnbergi); Grey petrels (Procellaria cinerea) and several other burrow-nesting seabird species; Antarctic Terns (Sterna vittata bethunei)); post-MIPEP flora recovery; and Historic Sites. |
https://www.antarctica.gov.au/news/stations/macquarie-island/2024/15-march/
|
| 3 | Commonwealth Government of Australia | On 1 July 2023, the Macquarie Island Marine Park was expanded to cover a total area of 475,465 square kilometres, close to a 300% increase in area. |
https://australianmarineparks.gov.au/parks/south-east-marine-parks-network/macquarie-island-marine-park/
|
| 4 | Various | The Macquarie Island Conservation Foundation aims to fund and facilitate science and research programs, as well as provide supplementary support to management initiatives, student projects and outreach activities which will benefit the conservation of Macquarie Island. The Foundation also seeks to provide an ongoing connection to Macquarie Island through news and updates about the island for those whose imaginations have been captured by this wild place, and to inspire others to value and contribute to the protection of the island and its unique inhabitants. |
https://macquarieisland.org/
|
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