Simien National Park
Country
Ethiopia
Inscribed in
1978
Criteria
(vii)
(x)
The conservation outlook for this site has been assessed as "significant concern" in the latest assessment cycle. Explore the Conservation Outlook Assessment for the site below. You have the option to access the summary, or the detailed assessment.
Massive erosion over the years on the Ethiopian plateau has created one of the most spectacular landscapes in the world, with jagged mountain peaks, deep valleys and sharp precipices dropping some 1,500 m. The park is home to some extremely rare animals such as the Gelada baboon, the Simien fox and the Walia ibex, a goat found nowhere else in the world. © UNESCO
Summary
2025 Conservation Outlook
Finalised on
11 Oct 2025
Significant concern
Current state and trend of VALUES
High Concern
Overall THREATS
Overall PROTECTION and MANAGEMENT
Full assessment
Description of values
Dramatic mountain scenery
Criterion
(vii)
The park occupies a stretch of about 35 km along the dramatic northern escarpment of the Simien massif, with a high plateau at around 4,000m.a.s.l. altitude, dropping precipitously through a series of steep forested gorges, massive cliffs and spectacular outlying inselbergs and rock outcrops (World Heritage Committee, 2011). Ethiopia's highest peak (Ras Dejen, 4,550 m.a.s.l.) has been included in the extended national park boundary, which is the area the World Heritage Committee requested to be added to the property.
Endemic plant communities
Criterion
(x)
The flora is exceptionally diverse and includes communities characteristic of different altitudinal zones from around 1,800 to above 4,000m.a.s.l. The Simien Mountains are also part of the Eastern Afromontane hotspot of plant diversity (Girmay et al., 2023). Communities include montane forests, tree heather forests, high altitude grasslands and Afro-alpine communities. The higher Afro-alpine communities are especially rich in endemic species, including the conspicuous giant Lobelias and red-hot pokers (Kniphofia spp.), while 10 species of grass (19% of the total) are endemic to the Simien Mountains (World Heritage Committee, 2011).
A recent study recorded a total of 532 vascular plant species representing 102 families. Asteraceae was the dominant family followed by Poaceae. Out of the species identified, 75 were endemic to Ethiopia, which is included in the preliminarily assessed list for IUCN Red Data List (Masresha, 2022).
A recent study recorded a total of 532 vascular plant species representing 102 families. Asteraceae was the dominant family followed by Poaceae. Out of the species identified, 75 were endemic to Ethiopia, which is included in the preliminarily assessed list for IUCN Red Data List (Masresha, 2022).
Endangered and endemic mammals
Criterion
(x)
Flagship species of large mammal include the Walia ibex (Capra walie, EN), Ethiopian wolf (Canis simiensis, EN) and Gelada Monkey (Theropithecus gelada), all endemic to the Ethiopian highlands. The endangered Walia ibex is restricted to the Simien Mountains, where populations are understood to be decreasing. The endangered Ethiopian wolf is the world’s rarest canid and although it also occurs in a small number of other locations in the Ethiopian highlands, Simien is one of its last remaining strongholds along with the Bale Mountain. Other readily observed large mammal species include golden jackal (Canis aureus), klipspringer (Oreotragus oreotragus), bushbuck (Tregalaphus scriptus), serval (Felis serval), spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta), black and white colobus (Colobus guereza), and anubis baboons (Papio anubis) (GMP 2009-2019).
Rare & Endemic birds
Criterion
(x)
Over 200 species of birds are recorded in this BirdLife Important Bird Area, including 16 species endemic to the Ethiopia/Eritrea highlands. The property is particularly rich in raptors and vultures including an important population of the bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus, NT) (World Heritage Committee, 2011; BirdLife International, 2017).
Cultural and spiritual values
The land is used for cultural and spiritual activities because it is regarded as sacred. The local inhabitants hold the land in high regard, and they consider their culture to be inextricably linked to it. One of the elder informants in Girmay et al. (2023) says: “According to our tradition, it is a place where the ancient kings and rulers of the region kept their wealth especially precious minerals (even gold and pearls). Therefore, we see the place as sacrosanct, and we hold it in the highest regard. This explains why we despite being asked to be relocated by successive governments particularly during drought spells have refused to do so. There are monasteries and churches that are recognized for their ancientness and rich history yet have not gotten much attention such as Saint Yared Monastery and Deresge Maryam”.
Medicinal plants and associated traditional ecological knowledge
The park is rich in therapeutic species serving as a refuge for many endemic and endangered species associated with the local community rich medicinal traditional lore. A total of 113 medicinal plant species belonging to 92 genera and 56 families have been documented (Seraw et al. 2024).
Assessment information
The park is facing several high threats, most associated with the high levels of human activity surrounding the park and to a lesser extent within the property. Overgrazing by domestic livestock and unsustainable resource use present localised problems of soil erosion and widespread disruption of ecosystem function and wildlife habitats. Overall 82% of the site area is a no or low grazing zone. The remaining area is subject to heavy grazing pressure from large numbers of sheep, goats and other stock belonging to herders around the park. The constant presence of high densities of domestic stock, and the resulting overgrazing reduces the amount of habitat available for key wildlife species and diminishes its capacity to support key species. With increasing human population growth around the property, the pressure on natural resources and the ecosystem continues to grow. Other threats are associated with tourism-related infrastructure and road developments. Although several lodge investment requests have been cancelled due to possible negative impacts on the site’s OUV, in the first quarter of 2020, third parties reported that the construction of one of the lodges, located inside the National Park but outside of the WH site, had already begun. Its location is understood to be in an important Gelada habitat and therefore pose a considerable risk to the OUV under criterion (x) as well as the visual impacts under criterion (vii). EIAs of further proposed lodge developments (Jacaranda and Kibran lodges) have not been supplied to the WH Centre as requested, making it difficult to determine potential impacts on the OUV. A new road, for which construction started in 2012, is mostly located outside of the National Park but its middle section runs through the park. Progress is underway to complete this road to reduce disturbance of the existing main road in important afro-alpine habitats. According to the State Party, the road is 75% complete and an EIA for the part of the new road crossing the SMNP will be submitted to the World Heritage Centre for review by IUCN. The extent of threat from Invasive Alien Species (IAS), especially plants, is not currently known, but road development brings with it, potential risks of introducing and spreading IAS as well as uncontrolled access to the Park and its resources. Further threats stem from uncontrolled fire and climate change. The uncontrolled fires in 2019 that spread across some parts of the National Park including the property, caused considerable damage to the forest. Climate change may see such cases increasing in the future. Throughout 2024 there were records of further forest fires in the WH site, one destroying 340 ha of forest and grassland. Overall, rising temperatures, changing rainfall patterns and an increased frequency of extreme weather events are affecting the park’s ecosystems, including the distribution and survival of plant and animal species.
Invasive Non-Native/ Alien Species
(Invasive plant species)
Invasive/problematic species
Prosopis juliflora
Parthenium hysterophorus
Eichhornia crassipes
Lantana camara
Other invasive species names
Acacia spp.
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
Outside site
The threat from invasive alien species (IAS) has not been properly assessed, but was observed during the October 2009 mission (UNESCO/IUCN, 2009). The proposed road development through the property also has the potential to introduce IAS (IUCN, 2017). According to Mohammed and Bahmud (2023), there are approximately 35 invasive alien plant species in Ethiopia including Prosopis juliflora, Parthenium hysterophorus, Eichhornia crassipes, Lantana camara, and Acacia species, that are the fundamental threats to biodiversity. According to the Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute (2025), studies to identify the threats of invasive plants in Ethiopia have been limited in scope and not sufficiently coordinated. Insufficient resources played a major role in this respect. Thus, activities have focussed so far on problems associated with agriculture and human activity whereas threats from invasive plants to the natural ecosystems have been understudied. Further monitoring data is needed to assess the impacts from invasive plant species on endemic plant communities in the property, as well as its other values.
Roads, Trails & Railroads
(Road and infrastructure corridor)
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
Outside site
A main (unpaved) road runs through critical wildlife habitat in the middle of the park, along the top of the escarpment, linking Debark with Mekane-Birhan. Electricity transmission lines were being installed along this road at the time of the last monitoring mission in October 2009 (UNESCO/IUCN, 2009), and a telecommunication tower was set up at Buyit Ras in close view of the Simien Lodge. A new road, for which construction started in 2012, will be mostly located outside of the National Park but its middle section of the road will run through the park. Progress is underway to complete this road to reduce disturbance of the existing main road in important afro-alpine habitats. According to the State Party, the road is 75% complete and an environmental impact assessment for the part of the new road crossing the SMNP will be submitted to the World Heritage Centre for review by IUCN (World Heritage Committee, 2023). The current existing road will not be decommissioned. The electric transmission line is also expected to follow the new road, however the realignment of the transmission line has been suspended until the road is completed (UNESCO, 2023; State Party of Ethiopia, 2024). According to third party information, in 2020, the construction of a road for one of the new tourist lodges also commenced inside the National Park, however no new information on the status of this road is available.
Residential Areas
(Human settlements and associated pressures)
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
586 households (3,223 people) were counted in 9 villages within the property at the time of a household survey in 2006 (UNESCO/IUCN, 2009) and many others residing nearby used the park’s land and resources for cultivation, grazing and resource collection. Other studies reported 418 houses with a total population of 2508 persons occupying more than 3000 ha of land within the park’s core region (Iori 2012). In 2015/16, the households of Gich Village were relocated from the core area of the property to the margins of the nearby town of Debark, for seeking alternative livelihoods and leaving their cultivated and grazed land to regenerate. In part this led to a reduction in grazing pressure, although it remains as a main threat across most of the property and post-relocation measures and promises of alternative livelihoods need to be carefully re-examined and financially secured to ensure the Gich community receives all feasible life skills training in order to make a successful transition to urban life (Endeshaw, 2023). Additionally, there is evidence of a low level of retaliatory killing of Ethiopian wolf, with 4 individuals having been killed between 2023 and 2024 (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024), as well as evidence of the illegal harvesting of Walia Ibex for bush meat posted on social media.
Logging, Harvesting & Controlling Trees
(Tree cutting for construction (houses/huts), tools and firewood collection)
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
Outside site
The high density of people living in or near the park and the local scarcity of wood, in the past created high pressure on forests and trees, especially the tree heathers forests and Hypericum thickets at higher altitudes (UNESCO/IUCN, 2009). However, according to Melese (2022), firewood collection has reduced over recent years due to the growth of Eucalyptus plantations in farmlands, which has helped communities get the construction, fuel and farming material necessary.
Recreation & Tourism Areas
(Construction of tourist lodges inside the property)
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
Outside site
Lodges continue to be constructed within the site boundaries (UNESCO, 2023), however, according to the latest State Party report (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024), lodges are only being constructed in the buffer zone and have to undergo EIAs prior to construction. Several lodge investment requests have been cancelled due to possible negative impacts on the site’s OUV (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024). In the State Party's report submitted in January 2020, EIAs for two new lodges were attached, which would be located well inside the National Park boundaries (State Party of Ethiopia, 2020). Furthermore, in the first quarter of 2020, third parties reported that the construction of one of the lodges, located inside the National Park but outside of the WH site, had already begun. Its location is understood to be in an important gelada habitat and therefore pose a considerable risk to the OUV under criterion (x) as well as the visual impacts under criterion (vii). EIAs of further proposed lodge developments (Jacaranda and Kibran lodges) have not been supplied to the WH Centre as requested, making it difficult to determine potential impacts on the OUV (UNESCO, 2023). The State Party has secured UNESCO international assistance to develop a Significant Boundary Modification proposal as requested by the WH Committee in order to align the WH boundaries with the expanded National Park. Once the Significant Boundary Modification is approved by the Committee, the lodges will be located within the WH site.
Fire & Fire Management
(Uncontrolled fires)
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
Outside site
In 2019, a wildfire caused significant damage to the WH site and its OUV. The State Party later reported that the site's ericaceous forest had been heavily burnt and it can be assumed that many other fauna and flora were affected. According to an unpublished report with maps by Hurni et al (2019), the fires in March and April 2019 affected a total of 815 hectares (ha) inside the SMNP, however it remains difficult to determine the exact extent of the damage to the OUV. Climate change may see such cases increasing in the future. In direct response to the 2019 fire incidence, UNESCO’s emergency assistance fund implementation made it possible to procure fire equipment, organize integrated fire management training for experts of the park (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024). However, throughout 2024 there were records of further forest fires in the WH site, one destroying 340 ha of forest and grassland (Shaban, 2024). Meanwhile the State Party has developed a fire management strategy and the management authority, in collaboration with the African Wildlife Foundation has planted more than 25,000 seedlings over the past 4 years in an attempt to restore the 2019 degraded habitat (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024).
Hunting, Collecting & Controlling Terrestrial Animals
(Poaching of Walia ibex)
Other targeted species names
Walia ibex
Inside site
, Throughout(>50%)
Poaching of large mammals for subsistence use is reported to be less of a threat in recent years. In the 1980s and early 90s however, subsistence hunting led to a very severe reduction in Walia ibex numbers (UNESCO/IUCN, 2009). More recent reports continue to report poaching of Walia ibex as a cause for the declining population trends (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024). Additionally, the impact of the northern conflict and COVID-19 may have led to increased hunting.
Annual & Perennial Non-Timber Crops
(Cultivation of barley, wheat, beans and other crops in different parts of the park (Abergina, Ambaras, Kebero, Key Afer, Michibign and Limalimo))
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
Outside site
Some 1,200 hectares of the park has previously been reported to be under cultivation by about 200 households, and an estimated further 20,000 households living along the park's periphery and engaged in a mixed crop-livestock farming system using park resources as grazing area. According to a study in the WH site, during the last 36 years, about 24,759 ha of forests have been converted into farmland (Debebe et al., 2023). Sheet, rill and gully erosion commonly occur in areas subjected to cultivation (UNESCO/IUCN, 2009) which might be partly attributed to gaps or misleading provisions in the regional land administration and management law; which permits crop cultivation on steep slopes of up to 60 degree slope gradients. The lag in demarcating the Park extension, the high permeability of the Park boundary, the high area to perimeter ration and the increasing pressure from a high population growth rate coupled with community livelihood strategies that are dominated by subsistence agriculture are dynamics which all lead to the increased encroachment of cropping activities from adjacent communities (EWCA, 2020).
Earth & Sediment Management
(Soil erosion)
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
Outside site
Extensive human-induced soil degradation has resulted from poor cultivation techniques and overgrazing lasting since several decades to centuries (Hurni and Ludi, 2000; UNESCO/IUCN, 2009; Girmay et al. 2023). Through the voluntary relocation of about 420 households up to 750 ha of cultivated land has been abandoned in 2016, thereby reducing soil erosion considerably. Nevertheless, widespread soil degradation as a result of century-old soil erosion remains for many decades to centuries to come, as soil regeneration is extremely slow at these altitudes.
Terrestrial Animal Farming, Ranching & Herding
(Overgrazing)
Inside site
, Throughout(>50%)
In a study of the WH site landscape categories, bare land increased by 220% between 1984 and 2020. According to the experts during the interview, the increase in bare land was due to the volcanic and rocky nature of the mountains as well as continued deforestation and overgrazing (Debebe et al., 2023). According to the State Party, 75% of the property is free from livestock grazing, which is lower than the 78% reported in the previous state of conservation report due to instability and internal conflict affecting the park in 2021/2022 (UNESCO, 2023). Overall 82% of the site area is a no or low grazing zone (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024).
The remaining area is subject to heavy grazing pressure from large numbers of sheep, goats and other stock belonging to herders around the park who bring their animals into the park. The constant presence of high densities of domestic stock, and the resulting overgrazing reduces the amount of habitat available for key wildlife species (e.g. Walia ibex avoid disturbed areas) and diminishes its capacity to support key species such as the Ethiopian wolf (whose rodent prey are also dependent on grass) (UNESCO/IUCN, 2009). Data suggest a 13 % decline in Walia ibex and relatively stable Ethiopian wolf populations (State Party of Ethiopia, 2022), however there is a need for a clear, systematic and long term monitoring protocols for these species to determine direct impacts from overgrazing (UNESCO, 2023). Overgrazing has been shown to adversely affect the behaviours of gelada monkeys in the park (Abebe et al., 2022) and herbaceous species diversity and richness were relatively lower in grazed areas than in ungrazed areas (Abebe et al. 2024). The necessary financial means to implement the grazing reduction strategy, and in particular developing a zoning scheme in an integrated approach with participation of local stakeholders have been lacking in 2012 (UNESCO, 2013), but were underway in 2015 (UNESCO, 2016). While more recent reports (State Party of Ethiopia, 2019) suggest that there has been progress in reducing the severity of this threat through the continued implementation of the Grazing Pressure Reduction Strategy, significant and substantial long-term investments are required (State Party of Ethiopia, 2020).
The remaining area is subject to heavy grazing pressure from large numbers of sheep, goats and other stock belonging to herders around the park who bring their animals into the park. The constant presence of high densities of domestic stock, and the resulting overgrazing reduces the amount of habitat available for key wildlife species (e.g. Walia ibex avoid disturbed areas) and diminishes its capacity to support key species such as the Ethiopian wolf (whose rodent prey are also dependent on grass) (UNESCO/IUCN, 2009). Data suggest a 13 % decline in Walia ibex and relatively stable Ethiopian wolf populations (State Party of Ethiopia, 2022), however there is a need for a clear, systematic and long term monitoring protocols for these species to determine direct impacts from overgrazing (UNESCO, 2023). Overgrazing has been shown to adversely affect the behaviours of gelada monkeys in the park (Abebe et al., 2022) and herbaceous species diversity and richness were relatively lower in grazed areas than in ungrazed areas (Abebe et al. 2024). The necessary financial means to implement the grazing reduction strategy, and in particular developing a zoning scheme in an integrated approach with participation of local stakeholders have been lacking in 2012 (UNESCO, 2013), but were underway in 2015 (UNESCO, 2016). While more recent reports (State Party of Ethiopia, 2019) suggest that there has been progress in reducing the severity of this threat through the continued implementation of the Grazing Pressure Reduction Strategy, significant and substantial long-term investments are required (State Party of Ethiopia, 2020).
Changes in Temperature Regimes, Changes in Precipitation & Hydrological Regime
(Climate change)
Inside site
, Throughout(>50%)
Outside site
SMNP is sensitive and vulnerable to the impacts of climate change since the park is included in the afromontane and afroalpine ecosystems, which are exceptionally vulnerable to climate change. Rising temperatures, changing rainfall patterns and an increased frequency of extreme weather events are affecting the park’s ecosystems, including the distribution and survival of plant and animal species (Seraw et al. 2024).
Increasing temperatures are expected to shift plant and animals communities to higher ground, and the amount of suitable habitat available to species that presently occur at the higher elevations is likely to decrease, particularly for the Ethiopian wolf (UNESCO/IUCN, 2009). An upward shift of the treeline by about 100 elevation metres was observed since the beginning of the 20th century (Hurni, 2005). Precipitation patterns have changed noticeably, especially reduced snowpacking resulting in unprecedented spring droughts (IUCN, 2017).
Little research has been carried out on the impacts of climate change on Ethiopia’s biodiversity. Projected impacts of climate change on geladas concluded that the minimum altitude they can occupy will increase by 500 meters for every 2°C rise in mean temperature (Fashing et al. 2022; Dunbar, 1998). Another study reported high rates of dieback in the two most dominant tree species in the northern Ethiopian Highlands – the African juniper and the olive (Eudicots: Oleaceae: Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata) – concluding that the climate change mitigation (i.e., carbon sequestration) potential of the remnant dry forests in the region will decline rapidly without urgent rehabilitation efforts and enrichment planting (Mokria et al. 2015). Afroalpine plants in Ethiopia’s high mountains also face high risk of habitat loss and genetic depauperation. The Ethiopian mountains are a vital refugia for the oldest Afroalpine plant lineages (Fashing et al. 2022).
Increasing temperatures are expected to shift plant and animals communities to higher ground, and the amount of suitable habitat available to species that presently occur at the higher elevations is likely to decrease, particularly for the Ethiopian wolf (UNESCO/IUCN, 2009). An upward shift of the treeline by about 100 elevation metres was observed since the beginning of the 20th century (Hurni, 2005). Precipitation patterns have changed noticeably, especially reduced snowpacking resulting in unprecedented spring droughts (IUCN, 2017).
Little research has been carried out on the impacts of climate change on Ethiopia’s biodiversity. Projected impacts of climate change on geladas concluded that the minimum altitude they can occupy will increase by 500 meters for every 2°C rise in mean temperature (Fashing et al. 2022; Dunbar, 1998). Another study reported high rates of dieback in the two most dominant tree species in the northern Ethiopian Highlands – the African juniper and the olive (Eudicots: Oleaceae: Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata) – concluding that the climate change mitigation (i.e., carbon sequestration) potential of the remnant dry forests in the region will decline rapidly without urgent rehabilitation efforts and enrichment planting (Mokria et al. 2015). Afroalpine plants in Ethiopia’s high mountains also face high risk of habitat loss and genetic depauperation. The Ethiopian mountains are a vital refugia for the oldest Afroalpine plant lineages (Fashing et al. 2022).
Human population increase around the park is a current as well as a long-term potential threat, most likely to create ever-increasing resource pressures if not properly managed. Growth in tourism provides income generation opportunities but needs to be well planned and managed to minimize potential negative impacts, especially in view of several new lodges proposed inside the Simien Mountains National Park in contrary to the WH Committee's decision. Plastic pollution has been stated to be causing problems for species like the gelada monkey, Walia ibex and Ethiopian wolf, however it is unclear whether this is due to consumption of plastic or other issues.
Recreation & Tourism Areas
(Poorly planned tourism infrastructure)
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
Outside site
Poorly planned tourism infrastructure could easily affect the nature around the camping sites and the visual aesthetic along the top of the escarpment (UNESCO/IUCN, 2009; IUCN, 2017). The 2017 IUCN mission noted that a new tourism lodge had recently been constructed and further lodges have been proposed inside the park (IUCN, 2017). However these developments appear to be incompatible with the General Management Plan, and the applicable law (“constructing roads or other structures” is a “prohibited activity” according to Regulations No. 163/2008) (IUCN, 2017). Recent State Party reports still indicate the aim to increase lodge development in buffer areas (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024). In the past, lodge developments were proposed around the site boundaries, however, were determined to in fact be planned within the park e.g. in the January 2020 State Party report, 4 new lodges were proposed around the Simien Mountains National Park boundaries, in addition to the 2 lodges already present inside the park. However upon examining two out of the four EIAs submitted by the State Party for the new lodges, they show that the new infrastructures are in fact proposed inside the National Park. This is in stark contrast to the WH Committee request in 2018 "to ensure that all new lodge developments are located outside the boundary of the national park" (WH Committee, 2018). With continued efforts to increase lodge developments around the park, there is urgent need to ensure these developments undergo sufficient EIA procedures and are confirmed to be beyond the site’s boundaries with no adverse impacts on the site’s OUV.
Other Human Disturbances
(Human population growth)
Inside site
, Throughout(>50%)
The human population in and around the property is increasing rapidly creating ever-increasing resource pressures, such as overgrazing, firewood collection and cultivation (PaDPA, 2007; Seraw et al. 2024).
Recreational Activities
(Tourism and its impact on water use and waste management)
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
Outside site
Although tourism brings its benefits such as job opportunities and capacity building, it is currently not compatible with the General Management Plan. Much of the tourism infrastructure is in need of major re-investment and many require greater environmental considerations. Concerns have been raised regarding the impact of tourism on water supply and disposal of solid and liquid waste. Plastic pollution has been stated to be causing problems for species like the gelada monkey, Walia ibex and Ethiopian wolf, however it is unclear whether this is due to consumption of plastic or other issues. An ongoing project, involving the Arizona State University and the Addis Ababa Institute of Technology and Gizish Industries, aims to develop technology to address the plastic problem of the area and develop sustainable partnerships with local communities to recycle plastic bottles and develop usable products to use and sell to tourists (Tropiano, 2024).
Involvement of stakeholders and rightsholders, including indigenous peoples and local communities, in decision-making processes
The local communities’ resistance to the foreign-led management of the park and resource use restriction was both violent and non-violent at different times (Girmay et al., 2023) and the role of local communities and traditional knowledge in the protection of the site’s values has not been recognised sufficiently (Girmay et al., 2023b). There is untapped potential for local park administrators to benefit from the local communities’ Traditional Ecological Knowledge for sustainable biodiversity conservation. The need to integrate scientific knowledge with Traditional Ecological Knowledge is also paramount (Girmay et al., 2023b). Local relations have seen an improvement following the transfer of management authority from federal level to the Amhara Regional State Government in 1997, a year after the property was inscribed on the List of World Heritage In Danger. Austrian-funded project support since 1997 has facilitated this improvement, financing consultative management planning processes and boundary re-alignment and demarcation as well as direct benefits aimed at reducing community dependence on park resources (such as firewood, grazing). Volunteer community guards have been recruited and trained in most of the neighbouring communities and now actively support conservation (UNESCO/IUCN, 2009). However, significant tensions remain between conservation of the park and the rapidly growing and impoverished subsistence farmer populations around its highly convoluted and porous boundary, although liaison structures at the Woreda and Kabele levels promise to manage this tension (EWCA, 2019). Funding to support this liaison and collaborative management is currently entirely derived from donor funding which is committed for the foreseeable future and it is essential that the potential funding vacuum is addressed by the government as soon as possible. Since the relocation of the Gich community in 2016 support is being provided to the community through several sustainable livelihood projects implemented by AWF and the management authority under a sustainable livelihoods programme (UNESCO, 2023). The programme is being implemented in two phases, with the first phase having benefited 37 households and the second currently ongoing and aiming to benefit 215 households through a range of business enterprise projects (e.g. bakery enterprise, grain and chilli milling, vegetable and fruit selling, dairy farming, sheep fattening) (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024). Nevertheless, although such sustainable livelihood programmes may improve the level of compensation for communities, they do not undo the trauma from being forced to leave a location to which they have a deep attachment (Endeshaw, 2023).
Additionally, park management is working closely with the local community to implement the Grazing Pressure Reduction Strategy through no grazing and sustainable use zones, awareness raising activities, restricting land from free grazing, improving resource protection and law enforcement (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024).
Additionally, park management is working closely with the local community to implement the Grazing Pressure Reduction Strategy through no grazing and sustainable use zones, awareness raising activities, restricting land from free grazing, improving resource protection and law enforcement (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024).
Legal framework
The park was established in 1966 and first gazetted in 1969, primarily to save the locally endemic Walia ibex from imminent extinction from overhunting. Following the voluntary relocation of 418 households in 2016, less than 200 households are currently living inside the park. Most of the afro-alpine meadows are still subject to heavy grazing pressure from domestic stock. The national park boundaries were both aligned and significantly expanded (Simien Mountains National Park Designation Council of Ministers Regulation No. 337/2014). The regulation came into force with the publication in the Federal Negarit Gazette in February 2015. The World Heritage property boundaries have however remained unchanged although the Committee has repeatedly requested the State Party to align the property boundaries with that of the new national park boundaries. However, this aspect will be addressed through implementation of the revised 2020-2029 General Management Plan (EWCA, 2020). Currently EWCA and GITEC are preparing a new nomination dossier for a significant boundary modification (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024).
Governance arrangements
The Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority (EWCA) is a government organization under the Ministry of Culture and Tourism given the authority to undertake conservation and sustainable utilization of wildlife in Ethiopia. EWCA partners with various international organisations to implement key management actions, for example with the African Wildlife Foundation on law enforcement, fire management, sustainable land management law enforcement and education. Overall, there is a high reliance on international funding and partnerships to support the site management.
Findings from qualitative data confirmed that an inequitable benefit-sharing mechanism for park entry fees, income, employment from mule rental services, guiding services, cooking provision, tent and cars rental services and NGO donations were causes of conflict among the user groups/association members in SMNP community-based ecotourism (Teshome, 2021).
Findings from qualitative data confirmed that an inequitable benefit-sharing mechanism for park entry fees, income, employment from mule rental services, guiding services, cooking provision, tent and cars rental services and NGO donations were causes of conflict among the user groups/association members in SMNP community-based ecotourism (Teshome, 2021).
Integration into local, regional and national planning systems (including sea/landscape connectivity)
From 1996 to 2009 the management of the property was under the authority of the Amhara Regional National State, enabling the establishment of much closer links than existed previously between the various local and regional stakeholders. In 2009 the re-constituted (Federal government) Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority (EWCA) took control, and most park staff were transferred to the new authority, providing necessary continuity in management, regional and national integration. A ‘technical modality’ has been established to guide collaboration between State agencies and EWCA (State Party of Ethiopia, 2012). Closer collaboration between federal and regional authorities is however essential to improve park management and tackle the pressing issues of settlement and unsustainable use, although the property has well established liaison structures at the Woreda and Kabele levels which will need to be carefully managed and maintained (EWCA, 2020).
Boundaries
The national park boundaries are demarcated with concrete beacons, including 300 new beacons established around the perimeter of the park extensions, in parts following agreement with local communities on their location. Revision of the park boundary involves (a) exclusion of some areas near the periphery of the existing park that have been heavily settled and (b) the addition of four elongated sectors each encompassing a mountain ridge (including Ethiopia’s highest peak Ras Dejen, 4,540 m.a.s.l.) or a steep section of the escarpment. These extensions are all relatively long and narrow, so the configuration of the extended park has a very high boundary to area ratio, with all the management and law enforcement challenges such a configuration brings with it. Additional work is needed on further demarcation of intermediate sections of the new boundary line, and accurate GPS recording and mapping of some parts of the revised boundary. The WH Committee has been requesting the State Party to ensure the alignment of the National Park boundaries with that of the WH property since 2010, and in its January 2020 state of conservation report, the State Party states that the development of a Significant Boundary Modification proposal for this process is underway (State Party of Ethiopia, 2020). According to the state of conservation reporting, this process is still underway and the State Party is continuing to develop a significant boundary modification proposal for the entire Simien Mountains National Park and strives for the simultaneous formalization of the buffer zone (State Party of Ethiopia, 2022). The assistance request for financial support from UNESCO for the development of a new nomination dossier and the establishment of the buffer zone was approved in 2023 for 30,000 USD (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024).
Overlapping international designations
N/A
Implementation of World Heritage Committee decisions and recommendations
Sustained and long-term efforts are needed to address the multiple current and anticipated threats which the property faces. Overall, the State Party, with support from partners AWF and KfW, has made significant effort to address Committee decisions (World Heritage Committee, 2023). However, despite the Committee's repeated requests to submit a significant boundary modification request to align the property boundaries with that of the expanded national park boundaries, little progress has been made by the State Party. Nevertheless, the recent request for financial assistance from UNESCO to facilitate the development of a nomination dossier has now been approved. Committee recommendations (World Heritage Committee, 2021) regarding species monitoring and grazing have been largely addressed through the development of species monitoring protocols for the Ethiopian Wolf, Walia ibex and Gelada Monkey and the implementation of a Grazing Pressure Reduction Strategy. Additionally, funding from international partners has improved the support for sustainable livelihoods (World Heritage Committee, 2023). Regarding tourism, the State Party has not submitted the draft Tourism Management Plan, although this has been developed and is being implemented. Furthermore, although there is evidence that the State Party has cancelled several investment requests of tourist lodges within the site boundaries, there continues to be construction of tourist infrastructure within the boundaries without EIAs having been submitted to the WH Committee for consideration (World Heritage Committee, 2023).
Climate action
There is an ongoing project by the Austrian Development Agency "Resilient livelihoods and sustainable ecosystems in the Simien Mountains National Park (SMNP) woredas" 2022-2025. The project focusses on the improvement of the livelihoods and resilience of the communities in and around the Simien Mountains National Park (SMNP) through 1) restoration, rehabilitation and conservation of natural resources, biodiversity and ecosystem services through local communities, 2) diversified and improved livelihood options for women, youth and vulnerable groups, together with enhanced gender equality, climate resilience and sustainable natural resource management, 3) improved capacity of the Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority (EWCA) and SMNP administration in inclusive participatory approaches and coordination mechanism at regional, zonal, woreda and kebele level (ADA, 2022). In the past climate change risk maps for the park were developed (Chernet & Consult, 2015) along with carbon storage and climate change mitigation potential of the forest areas (Assaye & Asrat, 2016), however the extent to which this information has contributed to climate action in management is unclear.
Management plan and overall management system
The 2020-2029 General Management Plan is currently being implemented, which includes six management objectives and 181 management actions for the protection and management of the OUV (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024). A draft Tourism Management Plan sets out priorities for the next ten years and an Integrated Fire Management Strategy is being implemented by the AWF and the management authority. Additionally, a Grazing Pressure Reduction Strategy (GPRS) is being implemented. Other initiatives are underway with the German Development Bank KfW and AWF to support general management e.g. through the development of frameworks including Environmental Social Management Framework, Social Process Framework, Law Enforcement Standard and Infrastructure Master Plan (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024). Closer collaboration between federal and regional authorities is essential to improve park management and tackle the pressing issues of settlement and unsustainable natural resource use. Dependence on donor funding is however unsustainable and failure of the federal government to provide sustained financial support compromises effective implementation of the management plan.
Law enforcement
Law enforcement capacity is severely limited due to the lack of financial resources provided by government. Officials are poorly paid and are ill equipped and therefore the level of moral is low and consequently law enforcement is largely ineffective. The short-term funding injection from donors promises to address this to some extent, but the risk of a funding vacuum thereafter remains serious.
There is evidence that existing rules and regulations are not properly implemented, and corruption is a barrier to effective management (Teshome, 2021). The most recent State Party report highlights failing law enforcement due to local instability to be a key cause of declining Walia ibex populations (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024). Maintaining the integrity of the Simiens National Park until the signing of the Ethiopia-Tigray peace agreement in November 2022 was challenging. The heightened security and presence of military personnel and vehicles in the park impacted protected area management, particularly patrolling and ecological monitoring mechanisms. Efforts are being focussed on improving patrolling quality by providing technical training for rangers, experts, police and local militants. A National Recovery Action Plan is being developed by the park authorities (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024).
There is evidence that existing rules and regulations are not properly implemented, and corruption is a barrier to effective management (Teshome, 2021). The most recent State Party report highlights failing law enforcement due to local instability to be a key cause of declining Walia ibex populations (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024). Maintaining the integrity of the Simiens National Park until the signing of the Ethiopia-Tigray peace agreement in November 2022 was challenging. The heightened security and presence of military personnel and vehicles in the park impacted protected area management, particularly patrolling and ecological monitoring mechanisms. Efforts are being focussed on improving patrolling quality by providing technical training for rangers, experts, police and local militants. A National Recovery Action Plan is being developed by the park authorities (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024).
Sustainable finance
Between 2010/11 and 2014/15 the park generated the equivalent of approximately US$ 180,000 in direct revenues, while local communities and tour operators generated about US$ 255,000, including a considerable increase in the last two years of the observed period (State Party of Ethiopia, 2016). The government recurrent budget was equivalent to approximately US$ 120,000 (excluding staff costs) (State Party of Ethiopia, 2012) but trends of such efforts are needed for a meaningful assessment. For relocation and compensation of the 418 households of Gich Village, the government allocated the equivalent of US$ 7.8 million in two budget years (SP report 2016). Significant additional funds were provided by development partners, notably the Austrian Development Cooperation and African Wildlife Foundation. However, capital funding for major necessary investments to develop and implement livelihood restoration plan for the relocated households at Gich village and the park neighbouring community, and the recently developed grazing pressure reduction strategy implementation may require significant amount of funding support from the international community. The current 2020-2029 General Management Plan requires a budget that is an order of magnitude greater than what is currently allocated by government. Fortunately donor funding commitments promise to more than adequately close the gap. However, this will be for the first three years of this plan's life span and the risk of a substantial funding vacuum are extremely high, although the plan does show that the potential return on investment for the country is on average ETB45:1 over the next three years (EWCA, 2019). It is essential that EWCA are given the legal framework to retain, invest and manage the revenue streams that they generate. At present the legal framework does not provide an incentive to EWCA to increase these as all revenue is returned to central treasury and the available budget remains inadequate for basic management needs and presents a serious constrains to management capacity (State Party of Ethiopia, 2021). Recently, 30,000 USD were approved under the international assistance programme of UNESCO for the "Finalization of a Proposal for a Significant Boundary Modification for the Simien National Park, World Heritage Property" (UNESCO, 2023).
Staff capacity, training and development
Efforts are being focussed on improving patrolling quality by providing technical training for rangers, experts, police and local militants. A National Recovery Action Plan is being developed by the park authorities (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024) and the advice from the Species Survival Commission is being sought to improve conservation measures for the Walia ibex.
A wide range of training opportunities have been provided for staff and local community stakeholders since 1997 through Austrian-funded project support, African Wildlife Foundation, Frankfurt Zoological Society and other donors. Since 2009, EWCA has undertaken a ‘Business Process Re-engineering’ activity involving staff re-structuring, recruitment of technical specialists and further training (State Party of Ethiopia, 2012) although further efforts to increase staffing and training are required (IUCN, 2017). There are currently over 100 staff including 45 community scouts recruited from local communities. The 2020-2029 General Management Plan includes a number of human resource development actions which promises to improve staff capacity substantially, but which also implies that this capacity is limited and of concern. The recommendations from an institutional analysis of EWCA completed in 2017 remain to be implemented (Debrus and Zunckel, 2017).
The Pastoral and Environmental Network in the Horn of Africa (PENHA)-TBI and CIFOR-ICRAF have begun a joint programme, to help Ethiopia build capacity at the federal and regional levels to assess wildfire risk, share up-to-date information and undertake effective responses in fire detection, mitigation and control. The programme will include developing a draft national wildfire management strategy that relevant national authorities will ultimately implement. Also needed is a concerted effort by government to promote participation, build awareness and understanding, change mindsets at community and policy levels, encourage cooperation between actors, and include development partners. This requires a sustained commitment over time. Continuous capacity building is essential to address limitations at multiple levels, with the appropriate training and support. There is also a need for basic firefighting equipment, to reduce reliance on external assistance, and for establishing more efficient coordination with international partners for swifter and more effective responses. It is also extremely important to build task forces at the local level, and to train and equip them for rapid fire detection and suppression (Livingstone et al., 2022). 15 fire brigade members have been established at the site with suitable material (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024).
A wide range of training opportunities have been provided for staff and local community stakeholders since 1997 through Austrian-funded project support, African Wildlife Foundation, Frankfurt Zoological Society and other donors. Since 2009, EWCA has undertaken a ‘Business Process Re-engineering’ activity involving staff re-structuring, recruitment of technical specialists and further training (State Party of Ethiopia, 2012) although further efforts to increase staffing and training are required (IUCN, 2017). There are currently over 100 staff including 45 community scouts recruited from local communities. The 2020-2029 General Management Plan includes a number of human resource development actions which promises to improve staff capacity substantially, but which also implies that this capacity is limited and of concern. The recommendations from an institutional analysis of EWCA completed in 2017 remain to be implemented (Debrus and Zunckel, 2017).
The Pastoral and Environmental Network in the Horn of Africa (PENHA)-TBI and CIFOR-ICRAF have begun a joint programme, to help Ethiopia build capacity at the federal and regional levels to assess wildfire risk, share up-to-date information and undertake effective responses in fire detection, mitigation and control. The programme will include developing a draft national wildfire management strategy that relevant national authorities will ultimately implement. Also needed is a concerted effort by government to promote participation, build awareness and understanding, change mindsets at community and policy levels, encourage cooperation between actors, and include development partners. This requires a sustained commitment over time. Continuous capacity building is essential to address limitations at multiple levels, with the appropriate training and support. There is also a need for basic firefighting equipment, to reduce reliance on external assistance, and for establishing more efficient coordination with international partners for swifter and more effective responses. It is also extremely important to build task forces at the local level, and to train and equip them for rapid fire detection and suppression (Livingstone et al., 2022). 15 fire brigade members have been established at the site with suitable material (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024).
Education and interpretation programmes
Community-based education and awareness programmes have been a central element of the Austrian-funded integrated development projects since 1997 and have clearly had a major impact in gaining the support of local communities for the national park. However, the fact that the external threats to the integrity of the site persist, indicates that these programmes need to be intensified. AWF has been supporting awareness-building campaigns, cash-for-work and livelihood restoration programs to support communities received benefits of adopting new practices that maintain the Simien Mountains National Park rather than depending solely on tourism or grazing livestock in the protected area (May, 2023).
Tourism and visitation management
According to the State Party, the draft Tourism Management Plan aims to improve communication with visitors by improving the park’s website and refurbishing the Park office with updated maps and information. Additionally, there are plans to develop a Visitor Welcome Centre at the Park gateway (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024).
Furthermore, the tourism management strategy aims to strategically assess how the impacts from the proposed tourism development will be monitored, however this document has not been provided by the State Party and could not be reviewed for the Outlook assessment (UNESCO, 2023). From the most recent state of conservation report, it can be discerned that efforts are concentrated on increasing tourism in the core areas of the site, by redeveloping campsites with private sector concession, adding new campsites and trails, while encouraging lodge development in buffer areas (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024). There continues to be concern that lodges are constructed within the site boundaries without sufficient EIAs to assess potential impacts on the OUV (UNESCO, 2023), although the State Party denies this is the case (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024).
Furthermore, the tourism management strategy aims to strategically assess how the impacts from the proposed tourism development will be monitored, however this document has not been provided by the State Party and could not be reviewed for the Outlook assessment (UNESCO, 2023). From the most recent state of conservation report, it can be discerned that efforts are concentrated on increasing tourism in the core areas of the site, by redeveloping campsites with private sector concession, adding new campsites and trails, while encouraging lodge development in buffer areas (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024). There continues to be concern that lodges are constructed within the site boundaries without sufficient EIAs to assess potential impacts on the OUV (UNESCO, 2023), although the State Party denies this is the case (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024).
Sustainable use
Intensive grazing and farmland expansions are still affecting the sustainability of the natural environment. According to State Party, 75% of the property is free from livestock grazing, which is a decrease from previously report 78% and apparently caused by the instability and internal conflict affecting the park in 2021/2022 (State Party of Ethiopia, 2022). 82% of land is set aside as low or no grazing zones (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024). A Grazing Pressure Reduction Strategy (GPRS) is being implemented and
initiatives are underway with the KfW and AWF to support sustainable use e.g. through the development of frameworks including Environmental Social Management Framework, Social Process Framework, Law Enforcement Standard and Infrastructure Master Plan (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024).
initiatives are underway with the KfW and AWF to support sustainable use e.g. through the development of frameworks including Environmental Social Management Framework, Social Process Framework, Law Enforcement Standard and Infrastructure Master Plan (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024).
Monitoring
Monitoring protocols for the three flagship species are being implemented, including quality control measures and approaches to develop a consistent long-term monitoring approach to inform the protection and management of these key species (UNESCO, 2023). Latest figures indicate stable Ethiopian wolf populations but a decrease of 13% in the Walia ibex population. Further efforts are needed to understand the drivers of this decline (UNESCO, 2023). The most recent State Party report indicates a 4% decrease in Walia ibex population from the 2023 dry season and suggests the failure of law enforcement as a result of local instability to be a key cause (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024). Long-term funding support is required to ensure that robust monitoring and evaluation actions may be instituted and this remains an aspect of high risk until government can commit substantially more than its current allocations. In addition to this is the fact that the monitoring is limited to the three flagship species while there are many other features of the SMNP which require monitoring. In the absence of funding to support the long-term monitoring as specified in the 2020 - 2029 management plan, this aspect remains of concern.
Research
The Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Programme (EWCP) is a Wildlife Conservation Research Unit (WildCRU, University of Oxford) endeavour in partnership with Dinkenesh Ethiopia, Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority, and Regional Governments supported by WCN, under the aegis of IUCN SCC Canid Specialist Group. Long-term collaboration with Swiss researchers started in the early 1970s (Nievergelt et al, 1998; Hurni and Ludi, 2000), and since 2013, the High Mountain Observatory project on climate, hydrology and sedimentology monitoring by the Water and Land Resource Centre (WLRC) associated to EWCA and Addis Ababa University exists. EWCA has deployed park ecologists and veterinarians, and the General Management Plan (2020-2029) establishes ‘ecological management’ as a key programme area with emphasis on monitoring and research to support management decision-making. As with monitoring, research also requires long-term funding commitment which is not donor dependent and until government can show this commitment, this aspect will remain of some concern.
Effectiveness of management system and governance in addressing threats outside the site
The 2020-2029 General Management Plan covering the entire Simien Mountains National Park addresses the need for the establishment of a buffer zone and with the substantial funding support from donors over the years, it may be possible that this essential aspect of the park is realised. However, the risk of a funding shortfall in the medium to long-term remains serious unless government is willing to contribute. Some of the external threats relate to issues that are difficult to manage, such as a rapid human population growth rate with the majority being almost exclusively dependent on subsistence agriculture, and climate change. However other threats from outside the property include construction of lodges within the wider Simien Mountains National Park against the WH Committee's decision. In the past three years, the State Party has made significant efforts to address key threats by developing an Integrated Fire Management Strategy, which is being implemented by the AWF and the management authority, a Grazing Pressure Reduction Strategy (GPRS) and other frameworks including Environmental Social Management Framework, Social Process Framework, Law Enforcement Standard and Infrastructure Master Plan (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024). Focus on effective implementation of these strategies and frameworks is now paramount, in close collaboration with local communities.
Effectiveness of management system and governance in addressing threats inside the site
Maintaining the integrity of the Simiens National Park until the signing of the Ethiopia-Tigray peace agreement in November 2022 was challenging. The heightened security and presence of military personnel and vehicles in the park impacted protected area management, particularly patrolling and ecological monitoring mechanisms. Efforts are being focussed on improving patrolling quality by providing technical training for rangers, experts, police and local militants. A National Recovery Action Plan is being developed by the park authorities (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024). Management has started tackling some of the factors affecting the integrity of the property and reverse the pervasive negative impacts of settlements, crop cultivation and excessive levels of livestock grazing. However, the lack of financial support from government has generated a high level of donor dependence and although there are substantial commitments to implement the General Management Plan for 2020 - 2029, these are short-term with no indication of increasing commitments from government. A management effectiveness tracking exercise carried out in September 2017 produced a score of 46% (Debrus and Zunckel, 2017).
The reconfiguration of the national park boundaries, more than tripling its surface area to around 42,000 hectares is probably the most significant step to invest in the long-term viability of the national park. As requested by the World Heritage Committee, the new boundaries should be harmonized with the formal World Heritage boundaries via a significant boundary modification. The reported construction of tourist lodges within the park not only poses considerable threat to the property and the national park, but questions how the WH Committee decisions are respected and implemented. Some key improvements in recent years relate to the development of new frameworks and strategies to address key threats including a draft Tourism Management Plan, an Integrated Fire Management Strategy, a Grazing Pressure Reduction Strategy (GPRS), an Environmental Social Management Framework, a Social Process Framework, a Law Enforcement Standard and an Infrastructure Master Plan. However, it is the effective implementation of these strategies that is essential to improve the overall management effectiveness of the park, and there is little evidence to suggest that this is happening. Closer collaboration between federal and regional authorities, along with improved relations with local communities is essential to improve park management and tackle the pressing issues of settlement and unsustainable natural resource use over the long term. Furthermore, a longer term funding mechanism is required to ensure the implementation of the General Management Plan can continue for the 10 year implementation period and to address current capacity limitations. A commitment from the government is urgently needed.
Dramatic mountain scenery
High Concern
Trend
Deteriorating
The scenic values of the site, particularly the views along the top of escarpment, have generally been maintained in recent years, although they are significantly impacted by the main road and associated infrastructure which brings heavy traffic, dust, noise and other disturbance to the core area of the park. A new road is expected to improve the situation by taking much of the existing traffic outside the park. 75% of the new road is now complete (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024). Persistent pressure from adjacent communities in terms of accessing the park for livestock grazing, crop farming, resource harvesting and settlement; as well as the intensification of these land uses immediately adjacent to the national park does impact on its scenic value. The high perimeter to area ratio also means that there are few areas within the park where a sense of wilderness prevails.
Endemic plant communities
High Concern
Trend
Deteriorating
According to a recent study the area covered by forest has decreased by about 31% (33,084 ha) over the past 36 years. This loss translates to an annual average forest loss of about 1.02% (919 ha). The observed reduction in forest cover was driven by agricultural expansion, population growth, growing demand for fuelwood, livestock pressure, and forest fires (Debebe et al., 2023). Heavy grazing pressure continues to affect plant communities across most highland parts of the park, while the still persisting area of land under cultivation is thought to be stable. The park areas where grazing restrictions are enforced show gradual increase over time and endemic plant communities are recovering, but other areas where firewood harvesting continues, and grazing prevents regeneration of tree heather forests which are getting gradually more senescent and vulnerable (UNESCO/IUCN, 2009). The abandonment of cultivation of Gich Village in the Upper Jinbar Valley in 2016 could provide a best practice example of reducing pressure and enabling plant communities to regenerate, but unfortunately the relocation plan was not sustainable and failed to take the long-term viability of the relocation into account. Consequently some elements of the relocated community are expressing unhappiness at their situation (EWCA, 2019). The 2020-2029 GMP includes important monitoring and evaluation and research actions that will help to provide more clarity on the trend of this value. According to an unpublished report with maps by Hurni et al (2019), the fires in March and April 2019 affected a total of 815 hectares (ha) inside the SMNP, It remains difficult to determine the exact extent of the damage to the OUV. Throughout 2024 there were records of further forest fires in the WH site, one destroying 340 ha of forest and grassland (Shaban, 2024). Meanwhile the State Party has developed a fire management strategy and the management authority, in collaboration with the African Wildlife Foundation has planted more than 25,000 seedlings over the past 4 years in an attempt to restore the 2019 degraded habitat (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024). Climate change poses a key threat to the property's endemic plant communities. Climate change mitigation (i.e., carbon sequestration) potential of the remnant dry forests in the region will decline rapidly without urgent rehabilitation efforts and enrichment planting (Mokria et al. 2015). Afroalpine plants in Ethiopia’s high mountains also face high risk of habitat loss and genetic depauperation. The Ethiopian mountains are a vital refugia for the oldest Afroalpine plant lineages (Fashing et al. 2022).
Endangered and endemic mammals
High Concern
Trend
Stable
The trend of Walia ibex and Ethiopian wolf populations are reported to show upward increase in the past ten to fifteen years, and are now at levels approximately four times those recorded in 1994. But this increase occurred exclusively in the relatively open ranges south-east of Chennek where Walias became habituated. In the biologically richer core area around the Gich Plateau, Walias are rarer and shier (Nievergelt, 2012). Vaccination of domestic animals in neighbouring communities is being carried out to prevent disease transmission to wildlife which could have a devastating impact on these highly endangered species. The area of protected suitable habitat has been increased dramatically through extension of the park. Ethiopia reported to be looking for funding to commission a detailed independent scientific study to assess the current status, composition and distribution of Walia ibex and Ethiopian wolf in its 2016 state of conservation report. Gelada is a somewhat less prominent flagship next to the Walia ibex and Ethiopian wolf, but deserves equal management attention considering their important ecological role, conservation value and exceptional attractiveness for wildlife viewing. As for other species, populations of some small mammals, especially the diurnal and easily visible Abyssinian grass rat (Arvicanthis abyssinucus), have declined due to overgrazing around Gich Plateau (Nievergelt, 2012). The plans for four new lodges within the National Park, and reports that construction for one of these lodges and its associated road in an important gelada habitat is highly concerning. The situational analysis undertaken as part of the revision and development of the GMP for 2020 - 2029 suggests that the status of this value remains of 'high concern' although the trend is 'stable' (EWCA, 2020).
Monitoring protocols for the three flagship species are being implemented, including quality control measures and approaches to develop a consistent long-term monitoring approach to inform the protection and management of the key specie (UNESCO, 2023). Latest figures indicate stable Ethiopian wolf populations (80 individuals recorded) and increasing Gglada monkey populations (greater than 18,000 individuals) but a decrease of 13% in the Walia ibex population since the last census. Further efforts are needed to understand the drivers of this decline (UNESCO, 2023). The most recent State Party report indicates a 4% decrease in Walia ibex population from the 2023 dry season and suggests the failure of law enforcement as a result of local instability to be a key cause (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024).
Studies have also shown that livestock grazing is adversely affecting the behaviour of gelada monkeys in the park (Abebe et al., 2022) and there is evidence of a low level of retaliatory killing of Ethiopian Wolf, with 4 individuals having been killed between 2023 and 2024 (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024). Plastic pollution has also been stated to be causing problems for species like the gelada monkey, Walia ibex and Ethiopian Wolf, however it is unclear whether this is due to consumption of plastic or other issues (Tropiano, 2024).
Monitoring protocols for the three flagship species are being implemented, including quality control measures and approaches to develop a consistent long-term monitoring approach to inform the protection and management of the key specie (UNESCO, 2023). Latest figures indicate stable Ethiopian wolf populations (80 individuals recorded) and increasing Gglada monkey populations (greater than 18,000 individuals) but a decrease of 13% in the Walia ibex population since the last census. Further efforts are needed to understand the drivers of this decline (UNESCO, 2023). The most recent State Party report indicates a 4% decrease in Walia ibex population from the 2023 dry season and suggests the failure of law enforcement as a result of local instability to be a key cause (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024).
Studies have also shown that livestock grazing is adversely affecting the behaviour of gelada monkeys in the park (Abebe et al., 2022) and there is evidence of a low level of retaliatory killing of Ethiopian Wolf, with 4 individuals having been killed between 2023 and 2024 (State Party of Ethiopia, 2024). Plastic pollution has also been stated to be causing problems for species like the gelada monkey, Walia ibex and Ethiopian Wolf, however it is unclear whether this is due to consumption of plastic or other issues (Tropiano, 2024).
Rare & Endemic birds
Data Deficient
Trend
Data Deficient
The number of bird species found in Ethiopia is inconsistent among different publications/reports. However, recent data show that Ethiopia has 881 species of birds, where 18 are endemic, 39 are globally threatened, one is introduced, and 13 are restricted to the geographical region of Ethiopian and Eritrean highlands, thus, shared only by Ethiopia and Eritrea. Environmental changes due to forest loss and fragmentation are highly likely to affect bird dispersal ability, resource use and the role of birds in ecosystem functioning (Desalegn, 2023). In the Amhara region 749 bird species are recorded with 35 globally threatened species (Lepage, 2023). The current information regarding population trends is data deficient.
Assessment of the current state and trend of World Heritage values
Deteriorating
The scenic values of this dramatic mountain escarpment with its far-reaching views are maintained, although they are visually affected to some extent by a major road and a parallel power line which pass through the core of the property as well as the pressures on natural resources from adjacent communities. The biodiversity values have been severely impacted on by high levels of human activity, including the destruction and degradation of important and once much larger forests, due to long-term settlement, cultivation and high levels of grazing by domestic stock. According to a more recent study the area covered by forest has decreased by about 31% (33,084 ha) over the past 36 years, driven by agricultural expansion, population growth, growing demand for fuelwood, livestock pressure, and forest fires. Heavy grazing pressure continues to affect plant communities across most highland parts of the park, while the still persisting area of land under cultivation is thought to be stable. Climate change poses a key threat to the property's endemic plant communities. Climate change mitigation (i.e., carbon sequestration) potential of the remnant dry forests in the region will decline rapidly without urgent rehabilitation efforts and enrichment planting. Afroalpine plants in Ethiopia’s high mountains also face high risk of habitat loss and genetic depauperation. The Ethiopian mountains are a vital refugia for the oldest Afroalpine plant lineages. The populations of the Ethiopian wolf and gelada monkey are reported as stable, however the Walia ibex population has decreased by 13%, in part due to the failure of law enforcement as a result of local instability. Conservation efforts are jeopardised by the plans to construct new tourist lodges within the national park, one of which has begun, reportedly in an important Gelada habitat. Studies have also shown that livestock grazing is adversely affecting the behaviour of gelada monkeys in the park and there is evidence of a low level of retaliatory killing of Ethiopian wolf, with 4 individuals having been killed between 2023 and 2024. The park was inscribed on the List of World Heritage in Danger between 1996 and 2017, and more remains to be done to conserve and restore the biodiversity values and ecological integrity.
Assessment of the current state and trend of other important values
High Concern
Deteriorating
The park is rich in therapeutic plant species serving as a refuge for many endemic and endangered species associated with the local community rich medicinal traditional lore. A total of 113 medicinal plant species belonging to 92 genera and 56 families have been documented. Erosion of therapeutic plants, verbal transfer of the traditional wisdom and young generation negligence in acquiring traditional lore have led to the deterioration of the long tradition of using therapeutic plants for health care (Seraw et al. 2024). Associated with the rapid population growth, the demand for agricultural and grazing land is increasing. Consequently, the vegetation of the study area is shrinking, followed by a decline in the availability of therapeutic plants over time. After the relocation of villages (Gich and Arkwazeye) from the park and removing the road out of the park boundary, overgrazing and agricultural expansion are identified as the major factors threatening the biodiversity of the park, while placing pressure on cultural changes that may lead to deteriorating traditional ecological knowledge.
Additional information
Traditional agriculture,
Livestock grazing areas
Traditional agriculture consists of a combination of cereal cultivation and livestock for subsistence; both land uses are being discouraged and most human residents have been voluntarily relocated in 2016 to areas outside the park, in particular to the nearby town of Debark. What remains is high intensity livestock rearing, particularly in the higher altitudes of the park between 3,700 and 4,200 m.a.s.l. Overgrazing and associated degradation of biodiversity are increasing and need to be urgently addressed.
Deforestation has become rare in the park, while afro-alpine grasslands are heavily overgrazed in most parts. Soil erosion from cultivation and resulting sedimentation of rivers is decreasing due to the relocation of human land users to outside the park and leaving their cultivated land fallow. Waste management associated with tourist and people using the road through the Site is a challenge with both solid and liquid waste posing a threat.
Access to drinking water
The 41,200 hectares of the park contribute between 40-160 million m3 of high quality runoff water to the Tekeze-Atbarah Basin. These can be used for irrigation in the lowland areas of the basin as well as for the direct abstraction and use by adjacent communities.
The total annual runoff from the park area is estimated by taking an average 1000 mm annual rainfall and a runoff rate of 10-40%, based on first results of the Simien High Mountain Observatory of the Water and Land Resource Centre and EWCA. Climate change may increase runoff due to higher rainfall; while land use change may decrease runoff due to vegetation growth once grazing is reduced. The judicious use of fire as a management tool needs to be implemented effectively, while non-management fires need to be prevented and controlled.
Outdoor recreation and tourism,
Natural beauty and scenery
The site offers unique benefits for recreation and tourism both to local and international tourists, while medicinal plants are estimated to have an annual value of approximately ETB 2.7 million (van Zyl, 2015).
Tourism and recreational impacts need to be planned carefully to avoid over-exploitation along tourist routes and spots and the harvesting of medicinal plants must be monitored to ensure that it remains within sustainable thresholds. The park is rich in therapeutic species serving as a refuge for many endemic and endangered species associated with the local community rich medicinal traditional lore. Rumex nepalensis seems to be the most preferred for the treatment of wounds, and Olea europaea subsp cuspidata for use as a multipurpose plant (Seraw et al., 2024).
Importance for research,
Contribution to education,
Collection of genetic material
Simien is a mountain system where natural altitudinal vegetation belts can still be found in well-preserved transects at elevations between about 2,000 and over 4,500 m.a.s.l. These are unique learning grounds for scientists and students at all levels, as well as for visitors. Biodiversity offers genetic material particularly of species endemic to Simien, such as the Walia ibex. Significant local knowledge exists in inhabiting a harsh environment as the Simien Mountains.
Overgrazing if not controlled will change the afro-alpine grassland composition even further, while otherwise the habitats are well preserved at present but the Site will always offer a rich variety of learning opportunities at all levels.
Carbon sequestration,
Soil stabilisation,
Flood prevention,
Water provision (importance for water quantity and quality),
Pollination
Environmental services are improving as a consequence of park management and voluntary relocation of most human land users to town areas outside the park. Resulting re-vegetation will lead to soil conservation and carbon sequestration particularly by building up soil organic carbon at altitudes higher than about 2500 masl. Peak runoff is expected to regulate through this land use change. The park's unique biodiversity provides a source of pollination to neighbouring areas, which are all heavily used by local farming. van Zyl (2015) estimates the annual value of the Sites environmental services to be ETB 2.8 billion.
Over-exploitation of afro-alpine grasslands above about 3,500 m.a.s.l. remains high, but may decrease when strategies to reduce grazing are introduced and become effective.
Collection of timber, e.g. fuelwood,
Sustainable extraction of materials (e.g. coral, shells, resin, rubber, grass, rattan, etc)
Grass for thatching and wood resources are extracted from the site by adjacent communities. Levels of extraction need to be monitored carefully to ensure that they are sustainable.
Collection of materials may be allowed but need careful monitoring and appropriate action by management, including zonation and user agreements.
Benefits of the property and the larger national park are manifold but remain moderate in economic terms. Food, water, recreation, materials such as grass and wood, as well as knowledge are nevertheless important. Among the most important are tourism options for local and international visitors, knowledge generation for scientists and students, while for local land users, the provision of additional income through employment may be considered significant. At the local level, reaching an agreement on reasonable harvesting and grazing levels would appear to be the most sustainable approach. Based on the resource economic study of Van Zyl (2015), the GMP for 2020 to 2029 shows that the value of the Park relative to the management costs, provides a benefit cost ratio of 5 to 1 using the tourism figures alone. The ratio would be far greater if all the ecosystem service values were included.
| № | Organization | Brief description of Active Projects | Website |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | African Wildlife Foundation (AWF) | Support of the alternative livelihood strategy, improving the tourism and park management infrastructure, capacity building for private and public organisations, and the Grazing Pressure Reduction Strategy (GPRS) development and implementation. |
https://www.awf.org/where-we-work/ethiopia
|
| 2 | University of Oxford (UK), Wildlife Conservation Research Unit & Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Programme (EWCP) | The EWCP is engaged in a range of projects including: Monitoring & Research Detecting changes of status and threats in all wolf populations, and finding solutions to conservation problems One Health Managing diseases, with benefits for people, wildlife and domestic stock Biodiversity Friendly Futures Building a future where people and wildlife coexists, sharing the costs and benefits of conservation Conservation Translocations Managing populations to boost recovery, avoid extinctions, and expand the species range |
www.ethiopianwolf.org
|
| 3 | Arizona State University, Addis Ababa Institute of Technology and Gizish Industries | Engineering students at Arizona State University and the Addis Ababa Institute of Technology are working together to build a pipeline that uses small machines to transform plastic waste in Ethiopia’s Simien Mountains National Park– a UNESCO World Heritage Site– into value-added goods to be sold by people living outside the park for a profit. |
https://zelaki.asu.edu/about
|
| 4 | Water and Land Resource Centre, Addis Ababa University and University of Bern | The WLRC established a Simen high-mountain observatory in various parts of the site, including climate stations and hydro-sedimentology in the Upper Jinbar Valley, an area recently undergoing land use change from cultivation to regeneration areas. Monitoring is ongoing. |
https://www.cde.unibe.ch/research/projects/the_water_and_land_resource_centre_project_wlrc/index_eng.html
|
| 5 | Austrian Development Agency, CARE Österreich, Verein für Entwicklungszusammenarbeit und humanitäre Hilfe | Overall goal: Improvement of the livelihoods and resilience of the communities in and around the Simien Mountains National Park (SMNP). This shall be accomplished through 1) restoration, rehabilitation and conservation of natural resources, biodiversity and ecosystem services through local communities, 2) diversified and improved livelihood options for women, youth and vulnerable groups, together with enhanced gender equality, climate resilience and sustainable natural resource management, 3) improved capacity of the Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority (EWCA) and SMNP administration in inclusive participatory approaches and coordination mechanism at regional, zonal, woreda and kebele level. |
https://www.entwicklung.at/en/projects/detail-en/resilient-livelihoods-and-sustainable-ecosystems-in-the-simien-mountains-national-park-smnp-woredas
|
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