Ancient and Primeval Beech Forests of the Carpathians and Other Regions of Europe

Some components of the World Heritage site are popular tourism destinations and particularly areas accessible without guides face seasonal overcrowding which could impact forest soil, microclimates, and species. However, overall tourism appears to be well managed. Other components form part of strictly protected areas and therefore tourism in those components is limited to guided walks and is strictly controlled (hiking is allowed only on officially marked trails and it is strictly forbidden to walk outside marked trails) (States Parties of Albania, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Italy, Poland, Romania, Slovenia, Spain, Ukraine, 2016). Varga et al (2022) developed strategies for visitor management in the property's buffer zone. A new guidance for buffer zones (Kirchmeier et al. 2023) has been officially approved by all States Parties, providing further safeguards relevant for tourism. The latest extension and minor boundary modifications of the property added above all areas that are subject to low or very low tourism pressures.

The small size and isolation of some of the components of the World Heritage site were noted by IUCN already in 2011 in its evaluation of the first extension of the site (IUCN, 2011). The 2017 extension also included a number of small components, with the average size of components in the 2017 extension being 871 ha compared to 2,200 ha average of the components inscribed before the extension (IUCN, 2017). Fragmentation of habitat is particularly a problem in Belgium where the components are very small and the forest buffer zone is divided by roads and rail and is in close proximity to the city (IUCN, 2017). There is a particular concern for the ecological viability of components which are less than 50 ha (IUCN, 2017). The small size of some components, makes the World Heritage site vulnerable to disturbance and/or degradation stemming from outside the components (UNESCO and IUCN, 2020; Thom et al., 2020; Weiss et al., 2024). However, it should be acknowledged that many components are relatively large and many are located within large protected areas (IUCN Consultation, 2020a and 2020b). It should also be acknowledged that minor and/or significant boundary modifications are either planned or have already been approved by the World Heritage Committee. These modifications have thus far improved the situation, but further enlargements will be needed to fully address the issue.

Over the years, several concerns have been raised regarding hydropower projects.
Numerous hydropower projects are planned or being constructed on the Valbona River in Albania. Whilst these are unlikely to directly impact the components of the World Heritage site (UNESCO and IUCN, 2020), potential impacts on hydrology, ecology and social systems are hard to predict (IUCN, 2017). WWF has raised serious concerns regarding a reported total of 14 hydropower development within Valbona Valley National Park and reports that construction started In late September 2016 on the Dragobia Energy Hydropower Plant (WWF, 2017). There are numerous concerns from conservation NGOs concerning this threat (WWF, 2017; Grand Teton Research, 2017; Ecologist, 2016). There are also reports about a planned hydropower plant also at the Gashi River. It is planned outside the component part (although in the buffer zone), but rather close to it and there are concerns that the component Lumi i gashit could be affected directly and may create new threats for the beauty and scientific value of the component's buffer zone (TOKA, 2020).

The hydropower facility Cerna-Belareca located in Domogled National Park (Romania), which serves as buffer zone for three components, may create threats for natural processes as well as for the beauty and scientific value of the components’ buffer zone, if the construction of new facilities and/or the extension of existing facilities would be considered in future (UNESCO and IUCN, 2020). Subsequently, Romania submitted an EIA concerning upgrading works for the Cerna Belareca Hydroelectric Plant (CBHP), noting that dismantling works of the existing structure would have a greater environmental impact than completing the remaining 20% of the upgrade. It has been confirmed that no deforestation would take place (UNESCO, 2025).

High demand for timber exists in some areas surrounding components of the World Heritage site, particularly in Slovakia, Romania and Ukraine (IUCN, 2007; UNESCO and IUCN, 2018, 2020), but also in Austria, Germany, Italy and Spain (UNESCO, 2025). This represents a threat mainly for buffer zones but also has an influence on the natural processes within some of the components.

Previously, according to the information included in various reports of the Council of Europe, the forest management plans of the forest reserves which form the Slovak part of the World Heritage site provide for logging in those areas. The expert mission of the Council of Europe concluded that 93% of the Poloniny National Park in Slovakia was under serious pressure from unsustainable logging, as well as hunting and poaching and these issues were also considered by the World Heritage Committee (UNESCO, 2011). Ongoing logging in all areas except the most strictly protected areas was confirmed by a report of the Council of Europe in 2015. A new management plan for Poloniny National Park (SK) was approved by the responsible authorities but did not fulfill the standard requirements of a management plan (Council of Europe, 2015 and 2017). While logging could be detected on satellite images in one of the buffer zones and to a small extent in one component (UNESCO, 2018), the State Party of Slovakia has ensured that no logging was taking place within its components of the World Heritage site through voluntary commitments of concerned entities.

Nevertheless, only parts of the Slovak components of the World Heritage site were legally protected from logging (UNESCO, 2017). Following a Reactive Monitoring mission and an Advisory mission, a significant boundary modification was prepared, which has successfully addressed the concerns and enhanced the protection of the property's OUV. Slovakia has also updated Forest Management Plans (FMP) to ensure a non-intervention regime within the property. The Integrated Management Plan (IMP) and zonation for Poloniny National Park is expected to take effect in 2025, aligning management with the conservation of the property. However, third party concerns have been raised noting that the new zonation would reduce the park to only one third of its current area.
Poloniny National Park administration has significantly changed the zoning proposal, which was discussed at the district office since December 2022. While the original proposal included 47% in the most strictly protected A zone, only 16% of the territory is now to be included (IUCN Consultation, 2025). The property’s Joint Management Committee (JMC) has requested Slovakia to provide a clarification (UNESCO, 2025).

Conventional forestry, such as clear-cuts, shelterwood cuttings and other types of interventions, has previously been accepted in many of the buffer zones of the transnational serial World Heritage site, but these activities are likely to disturb natural processes and to undermine the protective functions of buffer zones (UNESCO and IUCN, 2020; see also Thom et al., 2022). Logging in buffer zones in Romania has had negative effects on the integrity of the site (UNESCO and IUCN, 2020), with concerns being expressed about the existing forestry legislation, which provides for little difference between logging regulations inside and outside national parks (IUCN Consultation, 2020e). In several components it is possible to implement shelterwood and/or clear-cuts with special permission or in specific areas (Coordination Office, 2019; UNESCO, 2025), which is of utmost concern and in clear contradiction to the objective of protecting the site's Outstanding Universal Value. However, it must be noted that in many components and their buffer zones logging is prohibited and regulations are strictly enforced (IUCN Consultation, 2020a). Satellite image analysis confirmed that the logging pressure on many buffer zones of component parts in Romania has been very high (Schickhofer and Schwarz, 2019). Following the 2020 Reactive Monitoring mission (UNESCO and IUCN, 2020), Romania banned all forestry interventions in Domogled-Valea Cernei National Park until a revised management plan is issued in 2025. The new plan expands the non-intervention regime to approximately 74% of the buffer zone. Actions are also reported by Austria, Germany, Italy and Spain to address forestry interventions in buffer zones.

The importance of non-intervention regimes also outside the property is highlighted by recent research, both in regard to biodiversity conservation and climate change. For instance, retention of different types of deadwood is important for fungi diversity (Mamadashvili, et al., 2024). Landscape composition affects the severity of biomass declines for carabids caused by drought, as sites with less forest within a 1 km-radius showed greater declines in biomass (Weiss et al., 2024). As carabid declines were also observed in the German components of the property, Weiss et al. (2024) suggested that protection status does not necessarily ensure insect conservation amid drought stress from climate change and therefore recommended taking greater account of the landscape context and exposure to drivers of decline. Thom et al. (2022) found that microclimatic buffering under forest canopies can reduce climate change impacts, whereas canopy disturbances reduce the microclimatic buffering capacity, suggesting that forest management should foster microclimatic buffering. Carbon storage in uneven-aged forests is 32% higher than in even-aged forests. Older forests with a high proportion of uneven-aged deciduous trees promote both carbon storage and biodiversity (Springer et al., 2024). Literature noted that old-growth forests are relatively resilient to climate change and regulate micro-climates under extreme climatic conditions. Research across the German components of the property revealed that the core zones remained cooler and more vital during extreme heat events. Landscape characteristics and surrounding matrixes influence temperature-regulating patterns. Forest cooling effects increased with higher Land Surface Temperature (LST), highlighting the value of old-growth forests (Adhikari et al., 2024). Adhikari et al. (2024) recommend increasing effective protection in the areas surrounding mature forests and establishing corridors between isolated forest patches, and promoting unmanaged areas that can evolve into old-growth ecosystems. Finally, it was argued that the forestry industry provides few employment opportunities and can suppress the development of eco-tourism (Solár and Janiga, 2019).

Belgium conducted a Heritage Impact Assessment (HIA) for a road infrastructure proposal in the vicinity of the Belgian components of the property. The HIA contains limited detail on the reported negative impacts on the buffer zone of the property to conclude that impacts would be “negligible” (UNESCO, 2025). Impacts from anticipated increase in vehicle traffic are not assessed. Thus, UNESCO (2025) recommended the State Party not to proceed with any road infrastructure project in the buffer zone that may impact the integrity of the property. The 2019 UNESCO World Heritage Centre/IUCN Reactive Monitoring mission was informed of a plan to upgrade a forest track to a road in Domogled National Park (Romania) crossing one of the components and crossing the buffer zone. The mission concluded that the road upgrade would have a negative impact on the site’s integrity, potentially affecting its Outstanding Universal Value (UNESCO and IUCN, 2020). The State Party is exploring a boundary modification to remove the remaining 26% from the property and enable the suspended upgrading of national road 66A. The Committee urged the State Party to abandon plans to upgrade the national road 66A inside and/or nearby the property and to consider an alternative route (decisions 44 COM 7B.99 and 45 COM 7B.20). In response, it is reported that the terrain profile for one alternative route was considered inappropriate, however further details are not provided. It is important to note that the area of the components of the property should not be reduced as this would counter the expansion of undisturbed natural processes.

Collection of non-timber forest products (e.g. mushrooms, wild plants) occurs within the broader protected areas within which some components are located (IUCN, 2017). While the risks exist that this might occur within the components of the World Heritage site as well, the Guidance Document on the „Management of the property and buffer zone zonation“, regulates the collection of mushrooms, berries, medicinal herbs for personal use. Such activities are not allowed in the World Heritage Sites and the strict Protection buffer subzone, but allowed (only for personal uses) in the Landscape conservation buffer subzone.

Hunting has previously been reported as an issue in some component parts, however currently does not pose a significant threat to the key attributes of the site. Hunting is regulated by the relevant national legislation and in accordance with the principles set out in the guidance document on buffer zone management and buffer zone zonation (Kirchmeier et al., 2023). Nevertheless, there may be cases of illegal hunting in transboundary areas or areas which are more difficult to monitor (IUCN Consultation, 2024).

The Vihorlat component in Slovakia has become strictly protected by the regulation of the Government of the Slovak Republic in August 2020. However, some parts of Slovak components were still lacking strict protection during the last Outlook assessment. Meanwhile there is a no-hunting regime in the World Heritage components, and it is prohibited to trap, kill or hunt animals in the protection buffer sub - zone (B1 zone). In the landscape conservation buffer sub - zone (B2 zone) it is forbidden to organise joint hunts, no baiting or feeding of game is allowed except with hay, summer grass and grass or clover grass silage. No cases of poaching have been recorded and documented in the World Natural Heritage sites and their buffer zones in the territory of the Poloniny NP in the assessed period (10 years) (IUCN Consultation, 2025).

Hunting is not allowed in the Albanian components and in Romania it is prohibited within national parks (UNESCO and IUCN, 2020). In Slovenia, hunting is not permitted in the Krokar component and its buffer zone, but is taking place in the Snežnik-Ždrocle component and its buffer zone for the game management purposes; however, at very low levels (IUCN Consultation, 2020a). Although hunting is not allowed in the Albanian components, there are reports of illegal poaching in various protected areas (Ruppert, 2018; PPNEA, 2020). In the Czech Republic, hunting is allowed only with the special permission of the state natural protection authority. Currently the permit is valid until the end of 2033 due to high numbers of herbivore game impacting the natural regeneration of deciduous tree species (Nature protection management plan for 2021 - 2030 for national nature reserve "Jizerskohorské bučiny", AOPK 2020).

While no comprehensive data on climate change impacts is available for the entire World Heritage site, climate change is of high concern in some components, for example with regards to declining rainfall particularly during the growing season due to long dry summers. European beech is known to respond more significantly to drought than numerous other broadleaved tree species in Central Europe, although there are differing predictions regarding drought tolerance and post-drought recovery. Beech has a substantial adaptive potential to respond to environmental climatic conditions and the high trait variability within populations could represent a valuable source for adaptation in Fagus sylvatica. However, these careful and slow evolving drought adaptions may not be enough to safeguard growth and vitality of Fagus sylvatica against the challenges by a rapidly warming and drying climate (States Parties of Albania et al. 2022). Furthermore, forest degradation due to drought and insect damage are likely increasing as a result of climate change, as already witnessed in some State Parties e.g. Germany, Slovakia and Czechia (Prins, 2022).

Transport infrastructure like roads and railroads are known as corridors of foreign species and pests. They were considered to have a medium to high impact on the forests inside the property in the
future. Depending on the individual ecology of invasive species and pests a buffer zone can help to increase protection. Only few of the invasive species known in Europe today have the capacity to alter beech forest ecosystems significantly. Pests like fungi affecting the beech tree itself pose the highest risk. The risk of invasive pathogens and species might change rapidly due to climate change (States Parties of Albania et al. 2022).