Ancient Maya City and Protected Tropical Forests of Calakmul, Campeche
Country
Mexico
Inscribed in
2014
Criteria
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(ix)
(x)
The conservation outlook for this site has been assessed as "significant concern" in the latest assessment cycle. Explore the Conservation Outlook Assessment for the site below. You have the option to access the summary, or the detailed assessment.
The site is located in the central/southern portion of the Yucatán Peninsula, in southern Mexico and includes the remains of the important Maya city Calakmul, set deep in the tropical forest of the Tierras Bajas. The city played a key role in the history of this region for more than twelve centuries and is characterized by well-preserved structures providing a vivid picture of life in an ancient Maya capital. The property also falls within the Mesoamerica biodiversity hotspot, the third largest in the world, encompassing all subtropical and tropical ecosystems from central Mexico to the Panama Canal.
© UNESCO
Summary
2025 Conservation Outlook
Finalised on
11 Oct 2025
Significant concern
Current state and trend of VALUES
High Concern
Overall THREATS
Overall PROTECTION and MANAGEMENT
Full assessment
Description of values
Major and highly valuable remnant of a vast human-environment forest system
Criterion
(ix)
At slightly more than 331,000 hectares with an even larger buffer zone of 391,788 (together a total of over 723, 000 hectares) the property is a large and well-protected example of the coupled human-environment system sometimes referred to as the Selva Maya or Maya Forest (IUCN, 2014, Lawrence et al., 2004). Located in Southern Mexico along the border with Guatemala, the property and its buffer zone are embedded in a vast and extraordinary seasonal tropical forest system that extends into Guatemala, Belize and to a smaller extent El Salvador. The Calakmul Reserve is characterized by its size, good state of conservation and continuity with other regions in the Yucatán Peninsula, Chiapas, Guatemala and Belize. It is the largest forest mass in Mexico and, together with the forests of Guatemala and Belize, the second largest remnant forest left in Latin America after the Amazon (World Heritage Committee, 2014). Following historic conversion and modification during the highly sophisticated Maya civilization, the forests continue to be shaped by past human use (IUCN, 2014).
Rare species and high species richness
Criterion
(x)
The forests within and beyond the property boast a remarkable species richness and provide critical habitats for numerous rare and threatened species. The Calakmul Reserve lies in the most important tropical forest region in North America, and protects the largest tropical forest reserve in Mexico, including part of the Maya Forest and forms part of the Mesoamerican biological corridor. The Maya Forest is a heterogeneous landscape mosaic, including closed forests, seasonally inundated lowland forests and grasslands. Accordingly, the property offers a wide array of habitats and niches for the development of diverse species of flora and fauna (IUCN, 2014). The area is home to 86 species of mammals (including five of the six felines that are distributed in Mexico); 357 species of birds, among which are the king vulture (Sarcoramphus papa), the ocellated turkey (Meleagris ocellata), the elegant eagle (Spizaetus ornatus), and the Yucatan parrot (Amazona xantholora); 106 species of reptiles, including priority species for conservation such as the swamp crocodile (Crocodylus moreletii), the Yucatan spiny-tailed iguana (Cachryx defensor), and the coral snake (Micrurus diastema); 23 species of amphibians such as the Yucatan salamander (Bolitoglossa yucatana) and the red-eyed tree frog (Agalychnis taylori); 28 native fish species; 494 butterfly species; and 1,427 species of vascular plants (127 species endemic to Mexico). The Reserve has around 90 endemic species (SIMEC-CONANP, 2017), as well as charismatic species such as two endangered primates (Alouatta pigra and Ateles geoffroyi), the Central American tapir (Tapirus bairdii) and the white-lipped peccary (Tayassu pecari). Among the insects, 789 species have been recorded, including Coleoptera (70 spp.), Odonates (56 spp.) and Hymenoptera (52 spp.) (CONANP. 2023; Morón-Ríos & Morón, 2016).
Importance in regional connectivity
Many of the above values, such as major populations of large vertebrates, depend on habitats and landscape connectivity beyond the scale of the property. The property is a large and important component of the national and regional protected areas network, within and beyond the Maya Forest. Jointly with the contiguous Área de Protección de Flora y Fauna , Balam Kin and Reserva de la Biosfera Balam Kú en el Estado de Campeche y el Área de Protección de Flora y Fauna Balam Kin and Balam Kú Biosphere Reserve in the state of Campeche, and the Flora and Fauna Protection Area Bala’an Ka’ax in the adjacent Mexican state of Quintana Roo, as well as with Mirador-Rio Azul National Park and Biotopo Naachtn-Dos Lagunas in Guatemala, which in turn is contiguous with the Rio Bravo Conservation and Management Areas in Belize, the property forms a major protected area cluster. Despite important land use change in the wider forest region the property has maintained ecological linkages across the borders into Guatemala and Belize and to the Mexican Caribbean coast. This connectivity is important for many faunae, for the endangered jaguar (Panthera onca): about 900 hundred jaguars (almost half of the 2000 estimated for the entire Yucatan Peninsula) have been estimated to use the Calakmul Reserve (Chavez et al., 2006).
Remarkable geology and geomorphology
While not inscribed under criterion (viii) the property has a noteworthy karst geology featuring a wide spectrum of corresponding surface expressions. In a region of extremely scarce surface water, in particularly during the dry season, evaporites retaining water in so-called aguadas are crucial for both human beings and wildlife, constituting a direct link between the geology of the region, its biodiversity and human history (IUCN, 2014, State Party of Mexico, 2013).
Assessment information
Among the particularities of Calakmul is the fact that it is not only a fairly large site but also one that is embedded in a vast forest landscape. The World Heritage site is contiguous with several other protected areas. Given the increasing pressures on this landscape in all countries, there is a risk of isolation unless functions and connectivity can be maintained at landscape levels beyond the property. Challenges in terms of insufficient sector coordination at the landscape and at the protected area level are well documented. In the site itself and its immediate surroundings, there continue to be concerns about poor natural resources management, uncontrolled resource use, including for illicit trade, and tensions with local communities. Of particular concern is the damage caused to the forests and fauna of the reserve by recurrent fires, as well as persistent illegal logging.
Fire & Fire Management
(Fires)
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
Outside site
Fires are a major natural disturbance factor but also a land clearance tool, when used in a regulated and responsible manner, following the ignition techniques established in the Mexican Official Standard NOM-015-SEMARNAT/SAGARPA-2007, leading to an overlap between natural and anthropogenic factors. Risks of accidental fires could be increased by improved visitor access. There are some concerns about structural changes in the ecosystem and the role of fire in it, as dry seasons are expected to become more pronounced (State Party of Mexico, 2013). For instance, from 2013 to 2017 at least 30 fires were reported to have destroyed several thousand hectares of forests in the core and buffer zones but only six fires were recorded in core zones i.e. in the southern core zone, affecting an area of 88.8 hectares (SIRCA-IF). According to the State Party currently fires are a lower risk, however, they can become a higher risk in the future, if illegal logging is not regulated, as well as agricultural and livestock activity in the periphery of the property (State Party of Mexico, 2023).
Invasive Non-Native/ Alien Species
(Invasive alien species)
Inside site
, Widespread(15-50%)
Outside site
Challenges include for example bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum) competing with native vegetation (e.g. Earp, 2011, State Party of Mexico, 2013). Bracken fern is documented to be an agent of land use change causing many agricultural spaces to be abandoned (e.g. Earp, 2011; Schneider 2004). Reported feral and non-native vertebrate species include the presence of exogenous species, such as feral cat and dogs (Slater, 2024), and coyotes (Contreras-Moreno et al. 2020; State Party of Mexico, 2023). In 2023, a male great-tailed grackle (Quiscalus mexicanus) was recorded by one of the camera traps used for biological monitoring in the El Vizcaíno Biosphere Reserve, specifically at artificial water sources located 2 km from the tourist and visitor information center within the property. The species has not been detected again on nearby cameras. However, during a site visit to the checkpoint at kilometer 20, at least eight individuals of great-tailed grackle were observed in the surrounding area. The typical territorial behaviour characteristic of grackles was not observed, nor were any females, but this finding is a warning sign, as this species is an indicator of disturbance and warrants attention (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
Hunting, Collecting & Controlling Terrestrial Animals, Gathering, Harvesting & Controlling Terrestrial Plants & Fungi, Logging, Harvesting & Controlling Trees
(Uncontrolled resource use around the site)
Other targeted species names
Granadillo (Platymiscium yucatanum); ciricote (Cordia dodecandra)
Outside site
Threats originate from human activities driven mainly by population growth and development. Those include forest fires, illegal logging and deforestation, subsistence hunting and poaching, slash and burn agriculture. Intensifying human activities in the communities, such as livestock ranching, are changing the landscape through habitat loss, fragmentation, land-use change, and habitat degradation, contributing to increasing threats to wildlife populations (Pérez-Flores et al. 2020). Hunting is actively and openly practiced in the communal forests outside the CBR, where villagers rely on wild meat for protein intake.
It is important to note that subsistence hunting is regulated through internal agreements within each ejido, and according to numerous studies, hunters are aware of the species that are endangered and the areas where hunting is prohibited. Moreover, the dynamics of subsistence hunting vary depending on social factors within the ejidos, which influences the intensity of hunting activity in different zones. In areas where hunting occurs, it has been observed that species targeted by hunters tend to move to locations less frequented by humans or avoid commonly used trails. On the other hand, there are species that are less “sensitive” to human presence, and there is no noteworthy evidence indicating that they avoid areas frequented by people. Wildlife presence is more strongly associated with the availability of resources such as water than with hunting, human presence, or the level of ecosystem conservation (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
Perceived reductions in game populations, like central American red brocket, have been reported by hunters. Such reductions in game populations may further risk the food security and wellbeing of the rural communities in the area (Violante, 2024). Subsistence hunters serve as an important indicator regarding the reduction or absence of certain species; however, population declines may be caused by various factors or a combination thereof. Therefore, an assessment is needed to generate a comprehensive understanding of the threats affecting populations of this and other game species of interest (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
Reports of hunting monkeys like the spider monkey (Ateles geoffroyi), and parrots, including the endangered white-fronted Amazon (Amazona albifrons) and the yellow-lored Amazon (Amazona xantholora) for personal pets or local trade have also been noted.
Widespread uncontrolled extraction of timber and non-timber forest products, including for illegal trade in plants, wildlife and wildlife derivates with multiple direct and indirect effects on the ecosystem and its natural values (e.g. IUCN, 2014; State Party of Mexico, 2013; Garcia-Frapolli et al., 2009; TNC n.d.). However, the most significant threats come from forest fires and deforestation. An analysis (2017) of satellite photographs conducted by OPI Analytics estimated that between 2014 and 2016 illegal logging deforested around 1 km² in Calakmul, mainly of precious woods granadillo (Platymiscium yucatanum) and ciricote (Cordia dodecandra). The Mexican Government also reported that in May 2017 illegal wood (granadillo and ciricote) was seized in the Reserve by the federal Environmental Gendarmery (Government of Mexico, 2017). According to surveillance reports within the property, the presence of loggers extracting cirote and granadillo wood has been detected. In response, the Federal and State governments have intensified monitoring efforts by increasing the number of park rangers. In addition, joint patrols are being conducted with forest rangers from Guatemala’s CONAP, which has resulted in a reduction in illegal logging (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
It is important to note that subsistence hunting is regulated through internal agreements within each ejido, and according to numerous studies, hunters are aware of the species that are endangered and the areas where hunting is prohibited. Moreover, the dynamics of subsistence hunting vary depending on social factors within the ejidos, which influences the intensity of hunting activity in different zones. In areas where hunting occurs, it has been observed that species targeted by hunters tend to move to locations less frequented by humans or avoid commonly used trails. On the other hand, there are species that are less “sensitive” to human presence, and there is no noteworthy evidence indicating that they avoid areas frequented by people. Wildlife presence is more strongly associated with the availability of resources such as water than with hunting, human presence, or the level of ecosystem conservation (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
Perceived reductions in game populations, like central American red brocket, have been reported by hunters. Such reductions in game populations may further risk the food security and wellbeing of the rural communities in the area (Violante, 2024). Subsistence hunters serve as an important indicator regarding the reduction or absence of certain species; however, population declines may be caused by various factors or a combination thereof. Therefore, an assessment is needed to generate a comprehensive understanding of the threats affecting populations of this and other game species of interest (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
Reports of hunting monkeys like the spider monkey (Ateles geoffroyi), and parrots, including the endangered white-fronted Amazon (Amazona albifrons) and the yellow-lored Amazon (Amazona xantholora) for personal pets or local trade have also been noted.
Widespread uncontrolled extraction of timber and non-timber forest products, including for illegal trade in plants, wildlife and wildlife derivates with multiple direct and indirect effects on the ecosystem and its natural values (e.g. IUCN, 2014; State Party of Mexico, 2013; Garcia-Frapolli et al., 2009; TNC n.d.). However, the most significant threats come from forest fires and deforestation. An analysis (2017) of satellite photographs conducted by OPI Analytics estimated that between 2014 and 2016 illegal logging deforested around 1 km² in Calakmul, mainly of precious woods granadillo (Platymiscium yucatanum) and ciricote (Cordia dodecandra). The Mexican Government also reported that in May 2017 illegal wood (granadillo and ciricote) was seized in the Reserve by the federal Environmental Gendarmery (Government of Mexico, 2017). According to surveillance reports within the property, the presence of loggers extracting cirote and granadillo wood has been detected. In response, the Federal and State governments have intensified monitoring efforts by increasing the number of park rangers. In addition, joint patrols are being conducted with forest rangers from Guatemala’s CONAP, which has resulted in a reduction in illegal logging (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
Logging, Harvesting & Controlling Trees
(Broader landscape dynamics)
Outside site
Forest loss and degradation in the Maya Forest is impacting on the overall integrity of the natural resources in the region, including the World Heritage site. This is partially driven by population growth, migration and improved access through improving road infrastructure (e.g. State Party of Mexico, 2013; Garcia-Frapolli et al. 2009; TNC n.d., Ericson et al., 1999).
According to studies conducted by FMCN (2011), the habitat transformation rate in Calakmul for the 2000–2010 period was 0.031, equivalent to a loss of 2,132.53 hectares of forest cover, although signs of revegetation were also observed. This change indicates a loss of forest cover in the area but also reflects the vegetation capacity for recovery. However, for the mixed World Heritage property, the transformation rate was zero. It is important to clarify that habitat transformation is occurring in the buffer zone, specifically in areas designated for the sustainable use of ecosystems. On the other hand, 19 community reserves have been established on communal ejido land, known as Voluntarily Designated Conservation Areas (Áreas Destinadas Voluntariamente a la Conservación) in accordance with the LGEEPA, covering approximately 226,000 hectares. These reserves enhance regional forest connectivity.
At the same time, the management program is currently being developed based on the zoning established in 2023, which corrected inaccuracies found in the original 1989 decree (DOF-SEMARNAT).
According to studies conducted by FMCN (2011), the habitat transformation rate in Calakmul for the 2000–2010 period was 0.031, equivalent to a loss of 2,132.53 hectares of forest cover, although signs of revegetation were also observed. This change indicates a loss of forest cover in the area but also reflects the vegetation capacity for recovery. However, for the mixed World Heritage property, the transformation rate was zero. It is important to clarify that habitat transformation is occurring in the buffer zone, specifically in areas designated for the sustainable use of ecosystems. On the other hand, 19 community reserves have been established on communal ejido land, known as Voluntarily Designated Conservation Areas (Áreas Destinadas Voluntariamente a la Conservación) in accordance with the LGEEPA, covering approximately 226,000 hectares. These reserves enhance regional forest connectivity.
At the same time, the management program is currently being developed based on the zoning established in 2023, which corrected inaccuracies found in the original 1989 decree (DOF-SEMARNAT).
Changes in Temperature Regimes, Changes in Precipitation & Hydrological Regime
(Climate Change)
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
Outside site
Although the property remains one of most isolated and least populated regions in Mexico, the human communities and the tropical forests in the area are facing severe threats that risk the ecosystems’ health and people’s wellbeing. Climate change has significantly impacted and continues to impact the Calakmul region (Mardero et al., 2020), affecting both biophysical as and social processes, whilst exacerbating already-existing vulnerabilities. In Calakmul, rainfall patterns have shown increasing interannual variability and more pronounced anomalies, both positive and negative from 1982 to 2016. Additionally, drought frequencies have increased for the last 50 years. In the wake of severe droughts, aguadas have remained dry for long enough periods to lose their water-retention capability. Water scarcity is forcing large mammals to search for food and water in places where people store water and carry out productive activities, increasing human-wildlife conflicts (Violante, 2024).
Ecosystem-based actions have been implemented within the mixed property, such as the wildlife watering station strategy. Currently, there are a total of 19 functional artificial watering stations, 14 of which are equipped with camera trap stations. The artificial watering stations provide vital water to species with limited mobility that are unable to travel long distances in search of it, such as the white-lipped peccary (Tayassu pecari). Through the Program for the Protection and Restoration of Ecosystems and Priority Species (PROREST), the cleaning and maintenance of natural waterholes is carried out by organized groups from various ejidos, as well as within some of the Voluntarily Designated Conservation Areas (ADVCs) with the aim of ensuring better water capture and storage during the rainy season and maintaining its availability for a longer period during the dry season (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
Ecosystem-based actions have been implemented within the mixed property, such as the wildlife watering station strategy. Currently, there are a total of 19 functional artificial watering stations, 14 of which are equipped with camera trap stations. The artificial watering stations provide vital water to species with limited mobility that are unable to travel long distances in search of it, such as the white-lipped peccary (Tayassu pecari). Through the Program for the Protection and Restoration of Ecosystems and Priority Species (PROREST), the cleaning and maintenance of natural waterholes is carried out by organized groups from various ejidos, as well as within some of the Voluntarily Designated Conservation Areas (ADVCs) with the aim of ensuring better water capture and storage during the rainy season and maintaining its availability for a longer period during the dry season (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
Annual & Perennial Non-Timber Crops, Wood & Pulp Plantations, Terrestrial Animal Farming, Ranching & Herding
(Impacts of agriculture and cattle-raising)
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Outside site
In the buffer zone of the property, there are communal settlements that practice traditional Maya agriculture. These settlements are under communal ownership and align with the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Program’s directive to promote sustainable development, recognizing the traditional knowledge of Indigenous peoples. It is noteworthy that 90% of the population in the area consists of Maya Indigenous communities. The rate of habitat transformation due to agriculture and livestock activities is below 0.1% and is limited to the communal lands of these Indigenous peoples (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
Traditional slash and burn agriculture produces significant impacts on the forest. While small-scale in the World Heritage site, both subsistence and commercial agriculture and cattle-raising cause consistent concern, aggravated by inadequate land use practices by immigrants from other parts of Mexico (State Party of Mexico, 2013; Garcia-Frapolli et al., 2009; TNC, n.d.). Ranching (Sheep and cattle) is a growing enterprise, in part due to the increasing climate change-related crop failures (Violante, 2024). The use of agrochemicals in nearby communities further suggests potential groundwater pollution (State Party of Mexico, 2023). Although traditional agriculture establishment has been the main deforestation driver, big livestock breeding and conventional agriculture were the leading causes of deforestation within the area in the more recent periods (Spiric et al. 2022).
Traditional slash and burn agriculture produces significant impacts on the forest. While small-scale in the World Heritage site, both subsistence and commercial agriculture and cattle-raising cause consistent concern, aggravated by inadequate land use practices by immigrants from other parts of Mexico (State Party of Mexico, 2013; Garcia-Frapolli et al., 2009; TNC, n.d.). Ranching (Sheep and cattle) is a growing enterprise, in part due to the increasing climate change-related crop failures (Violante, 2024). The use of agrochemicals in nearby communities further suggests potential groundwater pollution (State Party of Mexico, 2023). Although traditional agriculture establishment has been the main deforestation driver, big livestock breeding and conventional agriculture were the leading causes of deforestation within the area in the more recent periods (Spiric et al. 2022).
Residential Areas, Recreation & Tourism Areas
(Increased development and urbanization)
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
Outside site
While current visitation is modest (according to the results of the RBC-CONANP monitoring report on tourism, only 35,000 tourists visited the World Heritage property in 2024. For the first half of 2025, approximately 19,000 tourist visits have been recorded) due to the location and limited access and facilities, highest level political statements and press releases leave no doubt about plans to promote tourism. The rapid expansion of tourism and the development of mass transportation infrastructure in the surrounding region, have led to a series of negative impacts, such as increased habitat fragmentation, interruption of species genetic flow, increased demand for resources, and changes in land use.
High concerns are associated with the large-scale Tren Maya project, which will span across the Yucatan Peninsula and involves significant new infrastructure development. The project is a controversial $9.8 billion megaproject that aims to transport more than 40,000 passengers daily across 1500 kilometers of south-eastern Mexico. An executive summary of the project’s risks, released by Mexico’s National Council on Science and Technology in 2019, warned of possible damage. It said the train would threaten at least 10 protected natural areas and nearly 1300 archaeological sites, and affect more than 143,000 Indigenous people living along the proposed route. The first section of the Mayan Train started operating in December 2023, transporting both local residents and tourists. A proposed mitigation strategy is to expand and further fund already-protected areas near the train’s route, such as the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve and Tulum National Park to constrain future development and prevent further ecological damage (Ortega and Jaber, 2022). In 2023, the decree establishing the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve was amended, increasing the core zone from 248,000 hectares to 520,000 hectares (Government of Mexico, 2023). This expansion limits the development of large-scale infrastructure projects within the property and its buffer zone.
However, habitat destruction and fragmentation derived from the megaprojects, such as the Tren Maya, will increase the pressure on the region’s socio-ecological system, which has adapted for millennia to rely on diversification of productive activities, in order to withstand climatic variation and seasonality that have naturally occurred in the area. The impoverishment of biodiversity will also aggravate the effects of climate change and decrease the resilience of the Maya productive systems (Quintanilla et al. 2022).
A section of the mega infrastructure train project crosses over Calakmul and has already caused deforestation. An analysis of satellite images of the area shows that by June 2023 there were 10,831 hectares (26,764 acres) being used in some way for the Maya Train, with 61% of that area deforested (Durán, 2023). The area deforested for the Maya Train works, 4,139 hectares (10,228 acres) were lowland and medium rainforest; 2,246 hectares (5,550 acres) were medium deciduous forest; 70 hectares (173 acres) were mangrove and péten (the name given in the Yucatán Peninsula to islands of arboreal vegetation found in flood zones); and 11.4 hectares (28 acres) were medium and high evergreen forest (Durán, 2023). To assess the impact of the project on the property, particularly on two vital resources, water and wildlife monitoring systems have been implemented to quantify the actual effects. The results of the first monitoring cycle are expected to be available by 2026 (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
A major threat to the future is the increased development and urbanization without proper planning, approval and impact assessments, including hotels inside the reserve that have already started development. These large infrastructure projects are expected to bring negative impacts on the connectivity of the ecosystems that make up the property, impact populations of birds, mammals, and other biodiversity.
High concerns are associated with the large-scale Tren Maya project, which will span across the Yucatan Peninsula and involves significant new infrastructure development. The project is a controversial $9.8 billion megaproject that aims to transport more than 40,000 passengers daily across 1500 kilometers of south-eastern Mexico. An executive summary of the project’s risks, released by Mexico’s National Council on Science and Technology in 2019, warned of possible damage. It said the train would threaten at least 10 protected natural areas and nearly 1300 archaeological sites, and affect more than 143,000 Indigenous people living along the proposed route. The first section of the Mayan Train started operating in December 2023, transporting both local residents and tourists. A proposed mitigation strategy is to expand and further fund already-protected areas near the train’s route, such as the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve and Tulum National Park to constrain future development and prevent further ecological damage (Ortega and Jaber, 2022). In 2023, the decree establishing the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve was amended, increasing the core zone from 248,000 hectares to 520,000 hectares (Government of Mexico, 2023). This expansion limits the development of large-scale infrastructure projects within the property and its buffer zone.
However, habitat destruction and fragmentation derived from the megaprojects, such as the Tren Maya, will increase the pressure on the region’s socio-ecological system, which has adapted for millennia to rely on diversification of productive activities, in order to withstand climatic variation and seasonality that have naturally occurred in the area. The impoverishment of biodiversity will also aggravate the effects of climate change and decrease the resilience of the Maya productive systems (Quintanilla et al. 2022).
A section of the mega infrastructure train project crosses over Calakmul and has already caused deforestation. An analysis of satellite images of the area shows that by June 2023 there were 10,831 hectares (26,764 acres) being used in some way for the Maya Train, with 61% of that area deforested (Durán, 2023). The area deforested for the Maya Train works, 4,139 hectares (10,228 acres) were lowland and medium rainforest; 2,246 hectares (5,550 acres) were medium deciduous forest; 70 hectares (173 acres) were mangrove and péten (the name given in the Yucatán Peninsula to islands of arboreal vegetation found in flood zones); and 11.4 hectares (28 acres) were medium and high evergreen forest (Durán, 2023). To assess the impact of the project on the property, particularly on two vital resources, water and wildlife monitoring systems have been implemented to quantify the actual effects. The results of the first monitoring cycle are expected to be available by 2026 (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
A major threat to the future is the increased development and urbanization without proper planning, approval and impact assessments, including hotels inside the reserve that have already started development. These large infrastructure projects are expected to bring negative impacts on the connectivity of the ecosystems that make up the property, impact populations of birds, mammals, and other biodiversity.
Considering the publicly announced plans to promote tourism following World Heritage inscription, there is serious concern about the direct and indirect impacts of such development. New access and visitor infrastructure, increased water demand, waste and waste water management all would pose new challenges in the site which today receives very limited numbers of tourists. High concerns are associated with the large-scale Tren Maya project, which will span across the Yucatan Peninsula and would involve significant new infrastructure development. Habitat destruction and fragmentation derived from the megaprojects, such as the Tren Maya, will increase the pressure on the region’s socio-ecological system, which has adapted for millennia to rely on diversification of productive activities, in order to withstand climatic variation and seasonality that have naturally occurred in the area.
Recreation & Tourism Areas
(Further tourism development plans)
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
Outside site
In addition to the ongoing developments mentioned above, there are further plans to promote tourism and develop associated infrastructure in the area. This includes investments in access infrastructure and local tourism infrastructure. Tourism is closely related to the visit of the archaeological zone, but there are also places close to the road, such as camps and interpretive trails, which are important for the economic development of towns near the Reserve (State Party of Mexico 2016). Habitat destruction and fragmentation derived from the megaprojects, such as the Tren Maya, will increase the pressure on the region’s socio-ecological system, which has adapted for millennia to rely on diversification of productive activities, in order to withstand climatic variation and seasonality that have naturally occurred in the area. The impoverishment of biodiversity will also aggravate the effects of climate change and decrease the resilience of the Maya productive systems (Quintanilla et al. 2022).
Roads, Trails & Railroads, Utility & Service Lines
(Major regional and national infrastructure planning projects)
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
Outside site
There exist regional plans to improve road infrastructure, including access to the Petén region of Guatemala under the Mesoamerica Project, formerly known as Plan Puebla Panama (www.proyectomesoamerica.org/). Regional infrastructure plans include plans for power lines and communication infrastructure under. One road crosses the buffer zone of the property. In 2015, some 6,186 vehicles entered the Reserve (State Party of Mexico, 2016). In 2023, the decree establishing the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve was amended, increasing the core zone from 248,000 hectares to 520,000 hectares (SEMARNAT-OAF, 2023). This expansion limits the development of large-scale infrastructure projects within the property and its buffer zone.
Involvement of stakeholders and rightsholders, including indigenous peoples and local communities, in decision-making processes
In the buffer zone there are an estimated 2,625 inhabitants although in recent years local communities have migrated from rural areas to existing villages and key cities, particularly Merida. These communities (ejidos) consist of families who each have equal rights to the use of communal forest and agricultural land. Ejidoes usually control a land area ranging from 500 to 50,000 ha and have between 10 and 150 members. Within the ejidos the local population uses slash and burn techniques (locally referred to as milpa) to grow grains, corn, beans and squash. The local forests have a long history of human interaction, and extraction, affecting especially important timber species such as Honduran Mahogany Swietenia macrophylla (VU). The resource use conflicts with mostly poor local communities since the establishment of the protected area are well documented (e.g. Gaudry Sada, 2013; García-Frapolli et al., 2009; Andrews, 2006; Galindo-Leal, 1988). Various projects have been developed by CONANP and other organizations to promote sustainable use of resources of the broader Calakmul Biosphere Reserve and surrounding areas. Following the re-design of its zonation, the buffer zone of the site now has a Traditional Use zone and a Zone of Sustainable Use of Ecosystems (State Party of Mexico, 2019). Some programmes have also been developed by CONANP to involve local communities in monitoring and surveillance activities (State Party of Mexico, 2019).
The Municipal Council for Sustainable Rural Development and the Advisory Council of the Biosphere Reserve have been two highly effective instruments for social participation and governance. The former meets once a month and includes representation from all microregions of the municipality, as well as all productive and social committees (including Indigenous peoples, youth, women, and a water committee). The latter meets three times a year to make management decisions regarding the World Heritage property and the Biosphere Reserve. Nineteen Indigenous communities have committed their territories to the conservation instrument known as Voluntarily Designated Conservation Areas (Áreas Destinadas Voluntariamente a la Conservación, ADVCs), covering an area of approximately 130,000 hectares (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
The Municipal Council for Sustainable Rural Development and the Advisory Council of the Biosphere Reserve have been two highly effective instruments for social participation and governance. The former meets once a month and includes representation from all microregions of the municipality, as well as all productive and social committees (including Indigenous peoples, youth, women, and a water committee). The latter meets three times a year to make management decisions regarding the World Heritage property and the Biosphere Reserve. Nineteen Indigenous communities have committed their territories to the conservation instrument known as Voluntarily Designated Conservation Areas (Áreas Destinadas Voluntariamente a la Conservación, ADVCs), covering an area of approximately 130,000 hectares (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
Legal framework
Legal instruments needed for the management of the property, where cultural and natural elements coincide in the same area, are in place. The extended world Heritage site together with its buffer zone coincide with the boundaries of Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, established in 1989 as a Natural Protected Area. Additional legal protection also exists for the archaeological monuments within the site (World Heritage Committee, 2018). Almost 90% of the land surface of the site is federally owned (UNEP-WCMC, n.d.). Two new federal protected areas have been established: Balam Ku and Balam Kin, which are strategically located increasing the expansion of the core zone of the reserve. In 2023, the creation decree was amended to expand the core zone to over 530,000 hectares, meaning that the entire area of federally owned land is now designated as core zone, while the lands owned by Indigenous and campesino communities are located within the buffer zone of the property (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
Governance arrangements
The property protection is guaranteed due to its location within the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, established in 1989 as a Natural Protected Area. The management of the whole property and its buffer zone falls to the Federal Government, through the National Commission of Natural Protected Areas (Comisión Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas / CONANP), for the Natural Heritage, in coordination with the National Institute of Anthropology and History (Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia / INAH), responsible for the Cultural Heritage. Recent years have seen an increase in the interaction of the residents in the workings of the property’s management, a fundamental step in creating sustainable and effective management decisions (Ericson, 2006). However, further relationship building work is needed regarding illegal hunting. Strengthening governance was mentioned as a goal in the most recent periodic report, focussing on improving the relationships between State and civil society actors (State Party of Mexico, 2023). A sub-advisory council for the mixed World Heritage property is in place, composed of community representatives, civil society organizations, and all three levels of government (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
Integration into local, regional and national planning systems (including sea/landscape connectivity)
Lack of coherence of sector policies at the national level and across the international boundaries is recognized as ongoing challenge. Furthermore, while cooperation between CONANP and INAH, responsible for the management of natural and cultural elements of this site, has improved with regards to the management of this site (State Party of Mexico, 2019), it is unclear how this translates into broader relevant sectoral programmes and their application.
At the international level, a trinational relationship is maintained with Guatemala and Belize to conduct cross-border patrols on a bimonthly basis, as well as a partnership with the recently designated Balam-Kú Biosphere Reserve and the Balam Kin Flora and Fauna Protection Area. Joint efforts have been conducted with these counterparts in surveillance, social and governmental engagement, and capacity-building activities. At the local level, collaboration continues with local communities for the monitoring and protection of their natural resources throughout the Calakmul Reserve, including the 19 ADVCs (Voluntarily Designated Conservation Areas) under the administration of the protected area (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
At the international level, a trinational relationship is maintained with Guatemala and Belize to conduct cross-border patrols on a bimonthly basis, as well as a partnership with the recently designated Balam-Kú Biosphere Reserve and the Balam Kin Flora and Fauna Protection Area. Joint efforts have been conducted with these counterparts in surveillance, social and governmental engagement, and capacity-building activities. At the local level, collaboration continues with local communities for the monitoring and protection of their natural resources throughout the Calakmul Reserve, including the 19 ADVCs (Voluntarily Designated Conservation Areas) under the administration of the protected area (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
Boundaries
Recent amendments to the executive decree establishing the protected area have reclassified certain zones. Some areas from the buffer zone have been incorporated into the core zone, while parts of the core zone have been reassigned to the buffer zone, permitting new uses in areas that previously had stricter protections. Two new federal protected areas have been established: Balam Ku and Balam Kin, which are strategically located increasing the expansion of the core zone of the reserve.
The core zone area of the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve increased by 37%, rising from 34.32% under the 1989 decree to 71.32% under the 2023 decree. As a result, 99% of the World Heritage property’s surface now overlaps with the core zone of the Biosphere Reserve, making it necessary to update the Management Plan for the property. Additionally, the zones and subzones of the Biosphere Reserve were defined as part of this process (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
The core zone area of the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve increased by 37%, rising from 34.32% under the 1989 decree to 71.32% under the 2023 decree. As a result, 99% of the World Heritage property’s surface now overlaps with the core zone of the Biosphere Reserve, making it necessary to update the Management Plan for the property. Additionally, the zones and subzones of the Biosphere Reserve were defined as part of this process (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
Overlapping international designations
In 1993, the Region de Calakmul UNESCO-MAB Biosphere Reserve was created. Due to the complete overlap and shared management responsibility across the designations it can be assumed that the overlap is effective. In 2006, the Calakmul region's inscription under the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme was expanded to 1.4 million hectares, under the designation "Calakmul Region Biosphere Reserve."
Implementation of World Heritage Committee decisions and recommendations
The 2014 inscription decision (38COM 8B.16) included several requests and additionally encouraged defined conservation activities. Subsequently a number of request have been made further, including issues relating to a Special Project specifically for the property under the newly signed cooperation agreement between CONANP and INAH; updating and reinforcement of legal protection for the extended property as a mixed site; issues related to the zonation of the site and its boundaries; and the completion and approval of the Integrated Management Plan for the mixed site (World Heritage Committee, 2016; 2018). Certain progress has been achieved in addressing some of these requests, particularly what concerns collaboration between CONANP and INAH and development of a new Management Plan for the mixed site (State Party of Mexico, 2019). In 2024, an agreement was signed between INAH and CONANP, emphasizing collaboration on the conservation, management, and protection of the mixed World Heritage property.
Climate action
The monitoring of atmospheric conditions, the exchange of gases and the presence of polluting particles, as well as climate data, are of outmost importance for decision-making when it comes to acting and allocating resources for the conservation of the Property and its buffer zone. For this CONANP signed an agreement between the National Commission of Natural Protected Areas, the Institute of Atmospheric Sciences and Climate Change of the National Autonomous University of Mexico, the Autonomous University of Campeche, and, for the installation of a station of the Mexican Observatory of Climate and Atmospheric Composition (OMECCA). The result is an observatory that was installed at the end of 2023, in the community of Zoh Laguna, Calakmul, northwest of the Mixed Property, and in 2024 was equipped with instrumentation for satellite data validation, which generates accurate information on climatic conditions, variability and trends of atmospheric pollutants and greenhouse gases (State Party of Mexico, 2024). Furthermore, CONANP is monitoring the impact from climate change on temporary lakes known as aguadas, and these provide water for the region’s fauna and human communities during the dry season. Climate change is causing the aguadas to shrink and disappear and CONANP is working to know the impact this was having on aquatic or semi-aquatic species that live primarily in aguadas (State Party of Mexico, 2023).
In 2021, with the participation of various social groups, the Climate Change Adaptation Program for the Selva Maya Region of Mexico was developed. This program includes the four protected natural areas of the Calakmul Region Biosphere Reserve, including the mixed World Heritage property. It serves as a key instrument for implementing measures with an Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) and Community-based Adaptation (CbA) approach, aimed at reducing vulnerability, increasing resilience, and enhancing the adaptive capacity of socio-ecosystems (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
In 2021, with the participation of various social groups, the Climate Change Adaptation Program for the Selva Maya Region of Mexico was developed. This program includes the four protected natural areas of the Calakmul Region Biosphere Reserve, including the mixed World Heritage property. It serves as a key instrument for implementing measures with an Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) and Community-based Adaptation (CbA) approach, aimed at reducing vulnerability, increasing resilience, and enhancing the adaptive capacity of socio-ecosystems (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
Management plan and overall management system
Since 2000, there has been a management plan in place for the property, which has been revised and consulted on several occasions. Furthermore, there are annual work plans to guide implementation. An update of the plan that includes the factors related to the Tren Maya project is pending (State Party of Mexico, 2023). The update of the Management Plan for both the World Heritage property and the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve is currently in progress and is expected to be completed in 2025 (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
Law enforcement
Patrolling is regularly conducted and control points are in place, however there continue to be reports of illegal resource use within the property (e.g. Violante, 2024). Greater institutional presence, including the police (National Guard), is required to advance the implementation of the legal framework applicable to the property (State Party of Mexico, 2023).
Patrols have been conducted in coordination with the National Guard and SEDENA, as well as civil society organizations such as WWF, PRONATURA, and community surveillance groups. Additionally, trinational patrols are conducted through a group composed of rangers from Belize, resource wardens from Guatemala, and park rangers from Mexico. Established patrol routes and an annual continuous surveillance plan are in place to guide these efforts.
Patrols have been conducted in coordination with the National Guard and SEDENA, as well as civil society organizations such as WWF, PRONATURA, and community surveillance groups. Additionally, trinational patrols are conducted through a group composed of rangers from Belize, resource wardens from Guatemala, and park rangers from Mexico. Established patrol routes and an annual continuous surveillance plan are in place to guide these efforts.
Sustainable finance
For the protection, conservation, and management of Natural and Mixed World Heritage properties in Mexico, considering their geographical location, size, and physical and biological characteristics, it is necessary to strengthen their financial, material, and human resources. The National Commission of Natural Protected Areas, as a decentralized body, lacks legal personality and its own assets, which means it is not authorized to receive direct financial resources from national or international institutions or organizations. It only has guidelines and criteria for in-kind donations, which limits the ability to secure external funding for the management of the Protected Areas that contain World Heritage properties (IUCN Consultation, 2024). According to the latest periodic report, although CONANP’s funding sources are more diversified than those of INAH, which only receives federal resources, the available budget is inadequate for basic management needs and presents a serious constraint to the capacity to manage (State Party of Mexico, 2023).
Although operational funding is limited, collaboration agreements are in place with PRONATURA, The Nature Conservancy, Global Conservation, and Espacios Naturales y Desarrollo Sustentable, which provide financial support for surveillance, as well as biological and social monitoring (IUCN Consulation, 2025).
Although operational funding is limited, collaboration agreements are in place with PRONATURA, The Nature Conservancy, Global Conservation, and Espacios Naturales y Desarrollo Sustentable, which provide financial support for surveillance, as well as biological and social monitoring (IUCN Consulation, 2025).
Staff capacity, training and development
The property teams have the technical field and administrative expertise necessary for protection, management, and conservation of the property (IUCN Consultation, 2024), however there are some reports (e.g. NOSSA, 2024), that the area lacks sufficient staff with only one ranger per 556 square kilometres. One hundred percent of the staff are certified as career public servants and therefore receive at least 40 hours of training per semester in subjects relevant to the fulfilment of their duties, in addition to being supported by a national training plan. Through the Selva Maya II and Global Terra Restoration projects, as well as the involvement of Amigos de Calakmul A.C., the hiring of at least 20 additional park rangers is planned, along with the acquisition of equipment and training to ensure the effective management of the World Heritage property, the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, and the ADVCs under its administration (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
Education and interpretation programmes
A new museum has been inaugurated in the property. Environmental education programs are in place although these could be strengthened further (State Party of Mexico, 2024).
The Calakmul Biosphere Reserve and the Mixed World Heritage property have a comprehensive environmental education program called "Calakmul–Bala’an K’aax," which operates through ten priority thematic areas: historical heritage, natural heritage, valuation of priority species, management tools for protected areas, climate change, sustainable practices, fire management, waterhole management, waste management, and coexistence with wildlife. The purpose of the program is to foster collective awareness around the region’s socio-environmental challenges, promoting responsible attitudes and habits, as well as a harmonious relationship with the environment that contributes to its preservation and sustainable use. The target audience includes all sectors of the population, with particular emphasis on those who have a direct relationship with natural resources: children, women, ejidatarios, and producers. The pedagogical strategy is adapted to each group’s knowledge level and social context (Environmental Education Program, 2021).
Each year, work is conducted with 42 communities, benefiting more than 1,800 people through various actions aimed at raising awareness and strengthening environmental knowledge. Regular activities include educational workshops, conducted in schools and community libraries, as well as monthly guided visits to the Mixed World Heritage property for local families, in the educational programme under the motto: “What is known is loved, and what is loved is conserved.” Additionally, the program includes four strategic annual events.
The first is the celebration of the Biosphere Reserve’s anniversary in May, featuring a week of activities such as community workshops, cleanup campaigns, conservation-themed races, and visits to archaeological sites, reaching approximately 300 people.
The second event is the Summer Course held in August, aimed at children from the municipality. Over the course of a week, participants engage in activities focused on conservation and environmental awareness, including the installation of camera traps, species identification, and experiencing what it is like to be a park ranger for a day, benefiting around 40 children.
The third event is National Conservation Week, held at the end of October. This intensive week of activities takes place across various communities and includes workshops, environmental film screenings, puppet theater, contests, waterhole cleanups, and photography exhibitions, impacting more than 400 people. Finally, in November, Jaguar Day is celebrated with a themed festival in a selected community to promote appreciation and protection of this emblematic species, reaching approximately 70 participants (Quarterly Reports, 2024).
The Calakmul Biosphere Reserve and the Mixed World Heritage property have a comprehensive environmental education program called "Calakmul–Bala’an K’aax," which operates through ten priority thematic areas: historical heritage, natural heritage, valuation of priority species, management tools for protected areas, climate change, sustainable practices, fire management, waterhole management, waste management, and coexistence with wildlife. The purpose of the program is to foster collective awareness around the region’s socio-environmental challenges, promoting responsible attitudes and habits, as well as a harmonious relationship with the environment that contributes to its preservation and sustainable use. The target audience includes all sectors of the population, with particular emphasis on those who have a direct relationship with natural resources: children, women, ejidatarios, and producers. The pedagogical strategy is adapted to each group’s knowledge level and social context (Environmental Education Program, 2021).
Each year, work is conducted with 42 communities, benefiting more than 1,800 people through various actions aimed at raising awareness and strengthening environmental knowledge. Regular activities include educational workshops, conducted in schools and community libraries, as well as monthly guided visits to the Mixed World Heritage property for local families, in the educational programme under the motto: “What is known is loved, and what is loved is conserved.” Additionally, the program includes four strategic annual events.
The first is the celebration of the Biosphere Reserve’s anniversary in May, featuring a week of activities such as community workshops, cleanup campaigns, conservation-themed races, and visits to archaeological sites, reaching approximately 300 people.
The second event is the Summer Course held in August, aimed at children from the municipality. Over the course of a week, participants engage in activities focused on conservation and environmental awareness, including the installation of camera traps, species identification, and experiencing what it is like to be a park ranger for a day, benefiting around 40 children.
The third event is National Conservation Week, held at the end of October. This intensive week of activities takes place across various communities and includes workshops, environmental film screenings, puppet theater, contests, waterhole cleanups, and photography exhibitions, impacting more than 400 people. Finally, in November, Jaguar Day is celebrated with a themed festival in a selected community to promote appreciation and protection of this emblematic species, reaching approximately 70 participants (Quarterly Reports, 2024).
Tourism and visitation management
There is an expectation of an increase in the tourist influx due to the railway infrastructure development, for which strategies have been developed to direct recreational and leisure activities within the polygon of the Mixed Property, towards sustainable tourism. Based on monitoring the entry of visitors, the tourist influx has increased. It reports a growth from 14,449 registered visitors in 2012 to 51,447 visitors in 2023. This represents an approximate increase of 252%, plus an average annual growth of 45% for eleven years of data registration. Considering the current growth of visitors observed, plus the expected increase in demand, actions are being taken to prevent the deterioration of the attributes of the outstanding universal value of the Mixed Property. The prime objective of the management program of the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve that is being updated is directed towards the management and administration of the spaces directly related to tourist activities and where these are carried out. It includes the creation of a “program for public use”, which shall delimit activities within the area, as well as distinguish between those permitted and those which are not. It also depicts the rules and requirements that service providers and tourists must follow. An update of a study to determine the limit of acceptable change is being worked on, which, as its name suggests, will allow us to know what the carrying capacity is for the interpretive trails near the road. This update includes the integration of indexes of biodiversity, richness and abundance of the species that live near the trails, establishing fauna monitoring with the placement of camera traps on the trails (State Party of Mexico, 2024). Another key measure for planning and managing visitors to the mixed World Heritage property is the monitoring of interpretive trails, which has been conducted annually since 2021 for three 30-day periods each year. These periods coincide with school vacations, which represent the times of highest visitor influx to the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, according to CONANP data.
The purpose of this monitoring is to record the number of visitors entering the trails to determine whether the carrying capacity and/or the acceptable limit of change, as described in the 2018 ELCA (LAC Evaluation), have been exceeded. Results from the trail with the highest authorized tourist use show an average of 6% of the maximum monthly threshold (9,030 visitors), with 436 visitors recorded during the winter of 2021, and the peak visitation occurring in the summer of 2022 with 1,065 visitors over a 30-day period (IUCN Consultation, 2025). The possible construction of a visitor center in the town of Conhuas, outside the property, may allow a more adequate management of visitors (State Party of Mexico, 2023). Until these measures have been implemented, tourism management remains of some concern.
The purpose of this monitoring is to record the number of visitors entering the trails to determine whether the carrying capacity and/or the acceptable limit of change, as described in the 2018 ELCA (LAC Evaluation), have been exceeded. Results from the trail with the highest authorized tourist use show an average of 6% of the maximum monthly threshold (9,030 visitors), with 436 visitors recorded during the winter of 2021, and the peak visitation occurring in the summer of 2022 with 1,065 visitors over a 30-day period (IUCN Consultation, 2025). The possible construction of a visitor center in the town of Conhuas, outside the property, may allow a more adequate management of visitors (State Party of Mexico, 2023). Until these measures have been implemented, tourism management remains of some concern.
Sustainable use
Along with the diversification of general activities currently offered by Calakmul, work for strengthening the productive activities is carried out in the buffer zone of the property. This includes strengthening enterprises that offer handicrafts, food, lodging, catering and transportation services that meet the criteria for good practices.
As a means of recognition for the work of local producers, the Calakmul Collective Certification Brand is being promoted, awarded to businesses that involve the activation of the local economy, better governance, and the sustainable use of natural and cultural resources and services (State Party of Mexico, 2024).
To reduce illegal and unauthorized hunting in the buffer zone, Wildlife Management Units (UMAs) have been established, enabling the sustainable use of fauna through specific management programs. Additionally, sustainable forest use has been promoted in accordance with the General Law on Sustainable Forest Development, allowing ejidos in the region to obtain FSC certification for forest and ecosystem biodiversity management. The Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certification is an international voluntary accreditation scheme that ensures wood products and their derivatives (paper, furniture, packaging, etc.) originate from responsibly and sustainably managed forests. In the apiculture sector, more than 1,500 honey producers have been supported through the Calakmul Master Beekeeping Plan, financed by GIZ and KfW-IUCN. Under this model, each apiary consisting of 35 hives protects 500 hectares of forest where bees forage. It is estimated that each hectare used for Apis mellifera and Melipona spp. contributes to the capture of 2 to 3 tons of carbon per year (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
As a means of recognition for the work of local producers, the Calakmul Collective Certification Brand is being promoted, awarded to businesses that involve the activation of the local economy, better governance, and the sustainable use of natural and cultural resources and services (State Party of Mexico, 2024).
To reduce illegal and unauthorized hunting in the buffer zone, Wildlife Management Units (UMAs) have been established, enabling the sustainable use of fauna through specific management programs. Additionally, sustainable forest use has been promoted in accordance with the General Law on Sustainable Forest Development, allowing ejidos in the region to obtain FSC certification for forest and ecosystem biodiversity management. The Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certification is an international voluntary accreditation scheme that ensures wood products and their derivatives (paper, furniture, packaging, etc.) originate from responsibly and sustainably managed forests. In the apiculture sector, more than 1,500 honey producers have been supported through the Calakmul Master Beekeeping Plan, financed by GIZ and KfW-IUCN. Under this model, each apiary consisting of 35 hives protects 500 hectares of forest where bees forage. It is estimated that each hectare used for Apis mellifera and Melipona spp. contributes to the capture of 2 to 3 tons of carbon per year (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
Monitoring
To monitor the state of conservation of the site and its Outstanding Universal Value, based on criteria (ix) and (x), an integrated monitoring program has been implemented. This program evaluates biodiversity, species richness, and wildlife mobility, with an emphasis on key groups due to their ecological function: the jaguar, monitored through CENJAGUAR of the National Alliance for Jaguar Protection; the white-lipped peccary, under the responsibility of El Colegio de la Frontera Sur (ECOSUR); the tapir (Tapirus bairdii), through censuses and camera traps; and the two primate species in the area, using indirect detection and activity studies. These efforts are complemented by vegetation inventories and habitat analyses.
Since 2024, continuous monitoring has also been conducted on greenhouse gas exchange, oxygen production, thermal regulation, and carbon capture, to quantify the contribution of the Calakmul forest to climate change mitigation (IUCN Consultation, 2025). Monitoring systems of the water bodies and the fauna surrounding them is being implemented. An early warning monitoring system for deforestation and forest fires is in place (State Party of Mexico, 2024). Different programmes have been developed by CONANP to involve local communities in monitoring activities in the broader Calakmul Biosphere Reserve. Training for the use of SMART (Spatial Monitoring and Reporting Tool) was organized in 2019 (State Party of Mexico, 2019).
Since 2024, continuous monitoring has also been conducted on greenhouse gas exchange, oxygen production, thermal regulation, and carbon capture, to quantify the contribution of the Calakmul forest to climate change mitigation (IUCN Consultation, 2025). Monitoring systems of the water bodies and the fauna surrounding them is being implemented. An early warning monitoring system for deforestation and forest fires is in place (State Party of Mexico, 2024). Different programmes have been developed by CONANP to involve local communities in monitoring activities in the broader Calakmul Biosphere Reserve. Training for the use of SMART (Spatial Monitoring and Reporting Tool) was organized in 2019 (State Party of Mexico, 2019).
Research
A series of research projects carried out by CONANP, the protected area, academia and NGOs are being implemented to monitor flora, fauna and water bodies. ECOSUR in particular has generated a wealth of information from both the natural and social sciences, most of it publicly available. The alliance WWF-Mexico and Carlos Slim Foundation has been supporting several research and conservation projects since 2009 (WWF, n.d.). A number of research activities are ongoing to study the importance of connectivity corridors in the area for several species (e.g. Carillo et al., 2019).
Effectiveness of management system and governance in addressing threats outside the site
The Tren Maya project, located mostly outside of the property, is a serious concern for the WH Committee due to the potential negative impacts on the site's OUV. The promoter of the project emphasizes that the strategic planning of the train’s trajectory has sought to minimize the impact on the property and thus reduce the magnitude of the impacts. It is important to emphasize that the EIA indicates that the TM-T7 project does not have a direct impact on the World Heritage Mixed Property Areas, since it is located 44.24 km to the north of the Main Property Sites; although it is recognized that it does have an impact on 3.7 km of the railways passing through the buffer zone. To assess the impact of the project on the property, particularly on two vital resources, water and wildlife monitoring systems have been implemented to quantify the actual effects. The results of the first monitoring cycle are expected to be available by 2026 (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
Effectiveness of management system and governance in addressing threats inside the site
According to the Second Report on the Management Effectiveness Evaluation of Mexico’s Natural Protected Areas, prepared by the Directorate of Evaluation and Monitoring of CONANP, the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve demonstrates outstanding management effectiveness. As a result, the National Commission for Natural Protected Areas (CONANP) has nominated the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve as a candidate for the IUCN Green List.
The area has long benefited from its remoteness and limited infrastructure in addition to a high degree of natural protection from the vast surrounding forest areas. However, the focus on developing tourism and transport infrastructure in the area is a significant concern, although site management is limited in the capacity to respond. Recent amendments to the executive decree establishing the protected area have reclassified certain zones. Some areas from the buffer zone have been incorporated into the core zone, while parts of the core zone have been reassigned to the buffer zone, permitting new uses in areas that previously had stricter protections. Two new federal protected areas have been established: Balam Ku and Balam Kin, which are strategically located increasing the expansion of the core zone of the reserve. Management planning is well-structured but requires consolidated implementation and adequate resources. Coordination between agencies in charge of cultural and natural heritage (INAH and CONANP) has been improved, including through joint development of new Management Plan for the site. Recent years have seen an increase in the interaction of the residents in the workings of the property’s management, a fundamental step in creating sustainable and effective management decisions. Strengthening governance remains a key issue however, including building the relationships between State and civil society actors.
Good practice examples
To reduce illegal and unauthorized hunting in the buffer zone, Wildlife Management Units (UMAs) have been established, enabling the sustainable use of wildlife through specific management programs. Additionally, sustainable forest use has been promoted in accordance with the General Law on Sustainable Forest Development, which has allowed ejidos in the region to obtain FSC (Forest Stewardship Council) certification in forest and ecosystem biodiversity management.
In the apiculture sector, more than 1,500 producers have joined the Calakmul Beekeeping Master Plan, financed by GIZ and KfW-IUCN. Under this framework, each apiary of 35 hives protects 500 hectares of forest where the bees forage. It is estimated that each hectare dedicated to Apis mellifera and Melipona spp. captures between 2 and 3 tons of carbon per year.
Native maize (maíz criollo) is protected, conserved, and promoted under the traditional milpa system, in collaboration with Indigenous communities from various regions of the country. Furthermore, the Sello Colectivo Calakmul (Calakmul Collective Brand), together with sustainable enterprises within the World Heritage property and the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, has benefited over 650 families by promoting sustainable production. It has also established the first official store for the Sello Colectivo Calakmul.
The watering system in natural waterholes (aguadas) and its associated monitoring program has served as a model among the ten biosphere reserves presented to the MAB programme.
In the apiculture sector, more than 1,500 producers have joined the Calakmul Beekeeping Master Plan, financed by GIZ and KfW-IUCN. Under this framework, each apiary of 35 hives protects 500 hectares of forest where the bees forage. It is estimated that each hectare dedicated to Apis mellifera and Melipona spp. captures between 2 and 3 tons of carbon per year.
Native maize (maíz criollo) is protected, conserved, and promoted under the traditional milpa system, in collaboration with Indigenous communities from various regions of the country. Furthermore, the Sello Colectivo Calakmul (Calakmul Collective Brand), together with sustainable enterprises within the World Heritage property and the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, has benefited over 650 families by promoting sustainable production. It has also established the first official store for the Sello Colectivo Calakmul.
The watering system in natural waterholes (aguadas) and its associated monitoring program has served as a model among the ten biosphere reserves presented to the MAB programme.
Major and highly valuable remnant of a vast human-environment forest system
High Concern
Trend
Deteriorating
Increasing pressure on natural resources in the broader area has been of concern for many years, however more recently the main concern is the possible impact from large-scale infrastructure projects. An ex post environmental monitoring system has been implemented to evaluate the actual effects on the surrounding ecosystem and will be finalised in 2026 (IUCN Consultation, 2025). Preliminary reports and personal communication with Dr. Carlos Delgado Martínez (UNAM) indicate that, between 2021 and 2022, visits by large felines to waterholes near the Hotel Calakmul decreased due to construction activities and the movement of vehicles and workers. However, this impact is localized and limited to the access zone of the archaeological site and thus cannot be extrapolated to the entire Mixed World Heritage property. Further population studies comparing the abundance of felines and their prey before, during, and after construction are needed to confirm any potential adverse effects.
Although the forests in the region remain largely preserved and continuous, large areas have been fragmented due to land-use change derived from recent agricultural intensification policies (Špirić et al., 2022). Combined with this, overexploitation of game species can be affecting the abundance and distribution of certain groups (Violante, 2024). Forest fires have been concentrated in the northern portion of the property's buffer zone, especially in the Chun Ek ejido, Hopelchén municipality. However, since 2017, no wildfires have been recorded, thanks to the establishment of firebreaks funded by CONANP and implemented by local communities. Additionally, the 2024 Local Ecological Land-Use Plan (POEL) for the municipality of Calakmul classified 80% of the territory as Environmental Management Units for conservation purposes, restricting agricultural and livestock activities to the remaining 20%, which lies outside the property and its buffer zone (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
Although the forests in the region remain largely preserved and continuous, large areas have been fragmented due to land-use change derived from recent agricultural intensification policies (Špirić et al., 2022). Combined with this, overexploitation of game species can be affecting the abundance and distribution of certain groups (Violante, 2024). Forest fires have been concentrated in the northern portion of the property's buffer zone, especially in the Chun Ek ejido, Hopelchén municipality. However, since 2017, no wildfires have been recorded, thanks to the establishment of firebreaks funded by CONANP and implemented by local communities. Additionally, the 2024 Local Ecological Land-Use Plan (POEL) for the municipality of Calakmul classified 80% of the territory as Environmental Management Units for conservation purposes, restricting agricultural and livestock activities to the remaining 20%, which lies outside the property and its buffer zone (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
Rare species and high species richness
High Concern
Trend
Deteriorating
Calakmul remains one of the most important areas of the Maya Forest for conservation of many species, such as the Baird's tapir and the white-lipped peccary.
The results of long-term monitoring by Operation Wallacea (Slater, 2024) have shown the increased importance of waterholes for wildlife conservation and the need for mitigation conservation methods to ensure a continuous water supply for wildlife in the reserve. The loss of waterholes during 2014–2019 led to a decrease in the abundance and diversity of fauna, the most affected being herpetofauna, primates and cats. Due to heavy rainfall in 2020 and adequate rainfall in 2021, waterholes recovered in 2022, resulting in corresponding recoveries in the abundance and diversity of bats, herpetofauna, cats, and some ungulates, further demonstrating the relationship between waterholes and wildlife. However, not all taxa recovered in 2022, and several that recovered in 2022 declined again in 2023. The results of the long-term monitoring project also identified two locations in the reserve of particular importance for their abundance and diversity of fauna: Dos Naciones in the southeastern buffer zone of the reserve, and the southern core zone. The south-central zone of the reserve was one of the most affected areas during the 2014-2019 drought, so the restoration and ongoing monitoring of waterholes in this area is crucial for the conservation of the reserve's fauna, especially as it is the most protected area possible from anthropogenic disturbances such as deforestation and hunting. The tall, wetter forests of Dos Naciones have the highest abundance and diversity of herpetofauna and are particularly important for both spider and howler monkeys. Additionally, the climate in and around Dos Naciones is more humid, allowing the waterholes in this region to retain water longer. Consequently, the southeastern part of the reserve is extremely important for winged or wide-ranging animals, such as felids and ungulates, which may seek refuge in this part of the reserve during periods of drought . In addition, the buffer zone and influence zone in the southeastern part of the reserve are an important biological corridor that provides access to rivers and streams in the borders of Belize and Guatemala (Río Bravo Conservation Area in Belize and Dos Lagunas Biotope Protected Area in Guatemala).
According to the Preliminary Report of the Third CENJAGUAR, the mixed World Heritage property has reported an increase in jaguar sightings, suggesting a growing population. On the other hand, preliminary reports and personal communication with Dr. Carlos Delgado Martínez (UNAM) indicate that, between 2021 and 2022, visits by large felines to waterholes near the Hotel Calakmul decreased due to construction activities and the movement of vehicles and workers. However, this impact is localized and limited to the access zone of the archaeological site and thus cannot be extrapolated to the entire Mixed World Heritage property. Further population studies comparing the abundance of felines and their prey before, during, and after construction are needed to confirm any potential adverse effects. Contreras-Moreno (2025) assessed tapir visitation frequency at waterholes between 2019 and 2021 and reported a similar reduction, although without evidence of an actual population decline, as the measurements were limited to specific points and not overall density estimates. In contrast, the surveys conducted by Slater (2024) span multiple areas—south, central, and north of the reserve—and offer more representative abundance data.
Finally, subsistence hunting of cracids (ocellated turkey and great curassow) has been identified in areas adjacent to the Mixed Property and, to a lesser extent, in the southern zone near the Guatemala border (López-Castilla et al., 2025). However, there are no studies that quantify the impact of this activity on wild populations. In the 19 Voluntarily Designated Conservation Areas (ADVCs) managed by the reserve, community monitoring indicates that cracids remain among the most abundant species, despite the mosaic of land uses and the practice of subsistence hunting.
The results of long-term monitoring by Operation Wallacea (Slater, 2024) have shown the increased importance of waterholes for wildlife conservation and the need for mitigation conservation methods to ensure a continuous water supply for wildlife in the reserve. The loss of waterholes during 2014–2019 led to a decrease in the abundance and diversity of fauna, the most affected being herpetofauna, primates and cats. Due to heavy rainfall in 2020 and adequate rainfall in 2021, waterholes recovered in 2022, resulting in corresponding recoveries in the abundance and diversity of bats, herpetofauna, cats, and some ungulates, further demonstrating the relationship between waterholes and wildlife. However, not all taxa recovered in 2022, and several that recovered in 2022 declined again in 2023. The results of the long-term monitoring project also identified two locations in the reserve of particular importance for their abundance and diversity of fauna: Dos Naciones in the southeastern buffer zone of the reserve, and the southern core zone. The south-central zone of the reserve was one of the most affected areas during the 2014-2019 drought, so the restoration and ongoing monitoring of waterholes in this area is crucial for the conservation of the reserve's fauna, especially as it is the most protected area possible from anthropogenic disturbances such as deforestation and hunting. The tall, wetter forests of Dos Naciones have the highest abundance and diversity of herpetofauna and are particularly important for both spider and howler monkeys. Additionally, the climate in and around Dos Naciones is more humid, allowing the waterholes in this region to retain water longer. Consequently, the southeastern part of the reserve is extremely important for winged or wide-ranging animals, such as felids and ungulates, which may seek refuge in this part of the reserve during periods of drought . In addition, the buffer zone and influence zone in the southeastern part of the reserve are an important biological corridor that provides access to rivers and streams in the borders of Belize and Guatemala (Río Bravo Conservation Area in Belize and Dos Lagunas Biotope Protected Area in Guatemala).
According to the Preliminary Report of the Third CENJAGUAR, the mixed World Heritage property has reported an increase in jaguar sightings, suggesting a growing population. On the other hand, preliminary reports and personal communication with Dr. Carlos Delgado Martínez (UNAM) indicate that, between 2021 and 2022, visits by large felines to waterholes near the Hotel Calakmul decreased due to construction activities and the movement of vehicles and workers. However, this impact is localized and limited to the access zone of the archaeological site and thus cannot be extrapolated to the entire Mixed World Heritage property. Further population studies comparing the abundance of felines and their prey before, during, and after construction are needed to confirm any potential adverse effects. Contreras-Moreno (2025) assessed tapir visitation frequency at waterholes between 2019 and 2021 and reported a similar reduction, although without evidence of an actual population decline, as the measurements were limited to specific points and not overall density estimates. In contrast, the surveys conducted by Slater (2024) span multiple areas—south, central, and north of the reserve—and offer more representative abundance data.
Finally, subsistence hunting of cracids (ocellated turkey and great curassow) has been identified in areas adjacent to the Mixed Property and, to a lesser extent, in the southern zone near the Guatemala border (López-Castilla et al., 2025). However, there are no studies that quantify the impact of this activity on wild populations. In the 19 Voluntarily Designated Conservation Areas (ADVCs) managed by the reserve, community monitoring indicates that cracids remain among the most abundant species, despite the mosaic of land uses and the practice of subsistence hunting.
Assessment of the current state and trend of World Heritage values
Deteriorating
The fast and ongoing land use changes and the loss and degradation of the wider Maya Forest undoubtedly have further direct and indirect impacts on the World Heritage site. While still impressive, the renowned wildlife populations of Calakmul face increasing pressure from climate change and increasing fragmentation of their habitat. The results of long-term monitoring show the increased importance of waterholes for wildlife conservation and the need for mitigation conservation methods to ensure a continuous water supply for wildlife in the reserve. The loss of waterholes during 2014–2019 led to a decrease in the abundance and diversity of fauna, the most affected being herpetofauna, primates and cats. Due to heavy rainfall in 2020 and adequate rainfall in 2021, waterholes recovered in 2022, resulting in corresponding recoveries in the abundance and diversity of bats, herpetofauna, cats, and some ungulates, further demonstrating the relationship between waterholes and wildlife. However, not all taxa recovered in 2022, and several that recovered in 2022 declined again in 2023. Increasing pressure on natural resources in the broader area has been of concern for many years, however more recently the main concern is the possible impact from large-scale infrastructure projects. An ex post environmental monitoring system has been implemented to evaluate the actual effects on the surrounding ecosystem and will be finalised in 2026.
Assessment of the current state and trend of other important biodiversity values
Low Concern
Stable
There are no documented major threats to the geological features and values of the site. However, the site’s connectivity within a wider region has been deteriorating. With the participation of communities surrounding the mixed World Heritage property that have certified their lands as Voluntarily Designated Conservation Areas (ADVCs), along with the expansion and recategorization of the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve and the creation of the Balam Beh Biological Corridor, a total of 2.2 million hectares are now under protection. This contributes to one of the most extensive areas of tropical forest connectivity in southern Mexico.
Additional information
Water provision (importance for water quantity and quality)
The forests of Calakmul are an integral part of the hydrological system that reduces the risk of flooding. It is also an important area for water recharging for the whole Yucatan Peninsula, a key factor in the development of the Maya Culture in the Ancient City of Calakmul and its surroundings (World Heritage Committee, 2014).
Importance for research
Given the widespread transformation and degradation of the Maya Forest, relatively large areas with a limited direct human footprint are an increasingly scarce scientific resource.
Outdoor recreation and tourism
Calakmul has high touristic potential based on both its cultural and natural wealth. The distribution of benefits – and costs – depends on the planning and implementation of tourism development.
Carbon sequestration
Calakmul Biosphere Reserve lies in the most important tropical forest region in North America, protects the largest tropical forest in Mexico, including part of the Maya Forest and forms part of the Mesoamerican biological corridor. It is the largest forest mass in Mexico and, together with the forests of Guatemala and Belize, the second largest remnant forest left in Latin America after the Amazon. The Calakmul-Sian Ka`an corridor connects two of the most important biosphere reserves in Mexican tropic, and its forests are one of the most important carbon sinks in Mexico.
The Calakmul-Sian Ka`an corridor connects two of the most important biosphere reserves in the Mexican tropic, and their forests are one of the most important carbon sinks for the country. While more recent efforts put more focus on conservation, the effective implementation remains to be consolidated. The contemporary dilemma boils down to the common need to balance conservation with use. This includes the planned promotion of tourism development.
More than 20,000 people live in ejidos (communal land) in and around Calakmul and depend on the forest for their livelihoods. The quality of life for these communities has deteriorated due to threats to the forest such as unsustainable ranching, road construction, illegal hunting, illegal logging, forest fires, and poorly planned tourism development.
More than 20,000 people live in ejidos (communal land) in and around Calakmul and depend on the forest for their livelihoods. The quality of life for these communities has deteriorated due to threats to the forest such as unsustainable ranching, road construction, illegal hunting, illegal logging, forest fires, and poorly planned tourism development.
| № | Organization | Brief description of Active Projects | Website |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | GIZ (formerly GTZ), KfW, IUCN and “Comisión Centroamericana de Ambiente y Desarrollo (CCAD)” | Regional progrmme “Conservation and Sustainable Use of the Selva Maya” operating in Belize, Guatemala and Mexico. |
https://selvamaya.info/proyecto-cooperacion-regional/
|
References
| № | References |
|---|---|
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