Archipiélago de Revillagigedo
Country
Mexico
Inscribed in
2016
Criteria
(vii)
(ix)
(x)
The conservation outlook for this site has been assessed as "good with some concerns" in the latest assessment cycle. Explore the Conservation Outlook Assessment for the site below. You have the option to access the summary, or the detailed assessment.
Located in the eastern Pacific Ocean, this archipelago is made up of four remote islands and their surrounding waters: San Benedicto, Socorro, Roca Partida and Clarión. This archipelago is part of a submerged mountain range, with the four islands representing the peaks of volcanoes emerging above sea level. The islands provide critical habitat for a range of wildlife and are of particular importance for seabirds. The surrounding waters have a remarkable abundance of large pelagic species, such as manta rays, whales, dolphins and sharks. © UNESCO
Summary
2025 Conservation Outlook
Finalised on
11 Oct 2025
Good with some concerns
Current state and trend of VALUES
Low Concern
Overall THREATS
Overall PROTECTION and MANAGEMENT
Full assessment
Description of values
Exceptional landscape and seascape
Criterion
(vii)
The landscape of the four islands comprising the Archipiélago de Revillagigedo (San Benedicto, Roca Partida, Clarión, and Socorro) exhibit impressive active volcanos, arches, cliffs, beaches, and isolated rock outcrops emerging from the middle of the ocean (World Heritage Committee, 2016). The highest volcano in Socorro rises 1,050 meters above sea level and is active with vents producing clouds from its boiling waters. The view of guano-covered Roca Partida, arising out of the middle of the ocean, is spectacular having a vertical wall of about 60-80 meters with divers see large schools of fishes and numerous sharks (State Party of Mexico, 2015; IUCN, 2016). The shear drops into crystal clear water and rich and varied marine life provide a superlative underwater beauty (State Party of Mexico, 2015; IUCN, 2016). The crystal clear waters of the property create exceptional scenic views with large aggregations of fish gathering around the steep walls and seamounts, as well as large pelagic marine species including Giant Manta Rays, whales, dolphins and sharks (World Heritage Committee, 2016). Using environmental DNA, a total of 539 species of fish and 1,633 species of marine invertebrates from 17 different phyla were recorded, in addition to at least 8,256 species of microeukaryotes, protists, micro and macroalgae and fungus (Munguia-Vega et al., 2023). Zooplankton baseline includes 28 taxonomic groups with at least 233 taxa reported (Gómez-Gutiérrez et al., 2025). The islands have extensive underwater habitats around them characterized by volcanic craters and submarine ridges (Raineault et al., 2018).
Awe-inspiring underwater experience
Criterion
(vii)
The site protects some of the richest marine ecosystems in the world with great aggregations of pelagic fauna such as rays, tunas, turtles, whales, and sharks. The Mexican National Park encompasses an underwater seascape with abyssal plains at depths close to 4,000 m and sheer drops in crystal clear water, all contributing to an awe-inspiring underwater experience. A large population of up to 769 Humpback Whales visits the islands; the songs of these majestic cetaceans can be heard during the winter months and while diving, add another sensory dimension to the marine seascape (Cheeseman et al., 2023). One of the most remarkable aspects of the national park is the concentration of the Giant Manta Rays which aggregate around the islands and interact with divers in a special way that is rarely found anywhere in the world (World Heritage Committee, 2016). Rubin et al. (2025) reported that three Giant Manta Rays populations from Revillagigedo National Park, Bahía Banderas (Nayarit) and Gulf of California constitute a metapopulation, with connectivity between the three regions.
Unique set of biological and ecological processes
Criterion
(ix)
The Revillagigedo National Park lies in the northern part of the Tropical East Pacific Province, a transitional zone influenced mainly by the California Current but mixed with the warm waters from the North Equatorial Current. Biogeographically the Eastern Tropical Pacific has a high endemic proportion of pelagic and insular fauna due the tropical and shallow oxygen minimum zone oceanographic conditions. This location results in the convergence of a multitude of fauna and flora, and creates a unique set of biological and ecological processes (World Heritage Committee, 2016). The endemism of the terrestrial and marine fauna, as well as vast congregations of certain species, is vivid proof of the important evolutionary processes of connectivity and speciation at play in these oceanic islands (State Party of Mexico, 2015; IUCN, 2016). Robertson and Cramer (2009) examined the geographic distributions of 1135 species of resident shore fishes to assess biogeographic subdivision of the Tropical Eastern Pacific (TEP) concluding that the Revillagigedo Islands and Galapagos islands represent Ocean Island Province that collectively represent a separate biogeographic province from the Cortez (Gulf of California and lower Pacific Baja) and the Panamic (southward) provinces. Relative to mainland areas, the fauna of the ocean islands is smaller, has a different functional-group composition, and includes more transpacific species and more highly localized endemics. The three-province pattern probably developed in response to the formation of the Gulf of California, the rise of the Isthmus of Panama, immigration from the north, south and west to the TEP, and differing environmental conditions between and within provinces (Robertson and Cramer, 2009). From 9,889 species detected with environmental DNA, approximately half (4,631) were found exclusively in a single of the four major islands, while 3,393 species were only found in deep habitats (80-280 m), indicating unique evolutionary processes in different parts of the archipelago and different depths (Munguia-Vega et al., 2023).
On-going terrestrial evolution
Criterion
(ix)
The isolation and relatively pristine state of these islands has supported evolutionary processes which result in a high level of endemism of terrestrial taxa. Two species of lizards, two endemic snakes, four endemic birds, at least 42 endemic plant species, including some invertebrates endemic to the islands (Vanderplank et al., 2020). In addition, 11 endemic subspecies of birds have evolved, indicating the potential for future evolution on these remote and well protected islands (World Heritage Committee, 2016). Some unique evolutionary processes, such as that recorded for the Clarion Burrowing Owl, add to the unique processes occurring on the islands (State Party of Mexico, 2015; IUCN, 2016).
Outstanding terrestrial biodiversity
Criterion
(x)
The Archipiélago de Revillagigedo is home to the endemic Socorro Dove (currently Extinct in the Wild), Socorro Mockingbird, Socorro Wren, Clarion Wren (as well as 11 endemic bird subspecies) including Socorro Red Tail eagle, two lizards, two snakes and numerous endemic plants and invertebrates (World Heritage Committee, 2016). While islands in general have low terrestrial biodiversity, the high level of endemism in the property's terrestrial flora and fauna make it unique. Records from a single expedition by San Diego Natural History Museum carried out in 2017 included more than 76 taxa (40 plants; 11 birds; 13 spiders; nine ants; two molluscs; and one lizard). These records bring to light the global distribution patterns of these species and occasionally the discovery of a new species endemic of these islands.
Outstanding marine biodiversity
Criterion
(x)
The geographic isolation of the Revillagigedo islands, shaped by the prevailing oceanographic and climatic conditions frequently impacted by summer storms and hurricanes, results in moderate insular marine productivity, moderate biodiversity, and exceptional levels of endemism (Favoretto et al., 2024). The quantity of a wide diversity of marine species, including cetaceans, sharks, rays and turtles, as well as rather exceptionally good number of endemic species of insular fishes and macroinvertebrates, make this an area of outstanding marine biodiversity (State Party of Mexico, 2015; IUCN, 2016; Centro para la Biodiversidad Marina y la Conservación, 2024). Insular habitat is mostly rocky reefs, with small areas of coral patches and sandy beaches. A total of 389 species of fish have been reported for the archipelago; 235 of these are reef fish that occur in the Eastern but also in the Central Pacific, 13 of which were identified as endemic to the archipelago (Fourriere et al., 2016), including the spectacular Clarión Angelfish, which can be observed in ‘cleaning stations’ feeding on the ectoparasites of the Giant Manta Rays and dolphins. Cryptic fish and macroinvertebrate species are poorly investigated. Becerril-García et al. (2020) reported 28 chondrichthyan species, including 19 sharks, seven batoids and two chimaeras in the Revillagigedo islands, comprising eight new records and a brief revision of confirmed species to date. These rays, some of them unusually completely black, aggregate in some of the largest numbers known worldwide. The Revillagigedo islands are a haven for a rich diversity of shark species with up to 20 having been recorded, as well as for the seasonally large population of up to 2,000 Humpback Whales (World Heritage Committee, 2016). New species of fishes are highly likely discovered, like the new wrasse species Halichoeres sanchezi (Victor et al., 2024) indicating the unique condition for speciation processes in these oceanic islands. Historical surveys and collections from rocky reefs around the islands recorded 185 macroalgae, 221 benthic diatoms, 85 echinoderms, 222 molluscs, 115 crustaceans, 36 cnidarians, 24 platyhelminthes and 10 sponges (Ramirez-Zuñiga et al., 2024). Plankton surveys registered 111 dinoflagellates, 63 diatoms and 233 species of zooplankton from 28 different planktonic groups (Gomez-Gutierrez et al., 2023). Environmental DNA from samples 20-280 meters deep detected 9,889 eukaryotes from 41 phyla, 98 classes, 259 orders and 423 families, and 539 species of fish (Munguia-Vega et al. 2023). Also notable are the sub-marine and deep sea ecosystem such as soft-coral gorgonian seabeds located at Roca Partida. Below 60 m exists a poor-studied habitat consisting of different soft coral seabeds from 60-100 meters below surface (an submarine monitoring expedition was carried out by National Park representatives and shark researchers during 2020), settled on impressive rocky beds and whites sandy bottoms, where is possible to observe ecological and biological interactions.
Significant importance for breeding seabirds
Criterion
(x)
The number of seabird species present in Revillagigedo islands is relatively low including 46 species which at least 13 of them have confirmed breeding at the islands which one of them is endemics (plus three species not fully confirmed) (Soldatini et al., 2025). In Revillagigedo islands inhabit the total population of Townsend's Shearwater (Puffinus auricularis), which is one of the rarest seabirds in the world only breeding on Socorro Island (State Party of Mexico, 2015; IUCN, 2016; Martínez-Gómez and Jacobson, 2004). The Revillagigedo islands are also of significant ecological refuge to other breeding seabirds, notably Masked, Blue-footed, Red-footed and Brown Boobies; Red-billed Tropicbirds; Magnificent Frigatebirds and several other species which can be seen soaring around the rocky outcrops where they nest and fish in the sea (World Heritage Committee, 2016). The yellow crowned nocturnal night-heron, Nyctanassa violacea gravirostri is the only species with coastal habits with reproductive activity in the Revillagigedo islands (Soldatini et al., 2024). Studies of insular birds must be taken with caution because sea birds are highly motile showing erratic movements during non-reproductive seasons and historical expeditions usually are of short duration, typically avoiding summer hurricane season (Soldatini et al., 2025).
Green Turtle breeding site
The Revillagigedo islands and its surrounding waters are home to up to five of the six species of sea turtles found in Mexico. The leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea), the olive ridley turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea) and the hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) carry out feeding and resting activities during non-reproductive periods in the waters of the Revillagigedo islands. The Eastern Pacific green turtle (Chelonia mydas), known locally as the black turtle, not only feeds but also breeds and nests within the Revillagigedo islands (Fernández-Sanz et al., 2025). Green Turtles nest on Isla Clarión at Bahía Azufre, the only place where they can lay their eggs. As many as 500 green turtle nests were estimated over a two-week period, making the site one of the three main breeding grounds for the Green Turtle population in the Pacific Ocean (State Party of Mexico, 2015). Starting in 2022, surveys have been conducted on Clarión island and Socorro island. In 2023, a census began on Clarión island during which a total of 462 nesting females were counted; a survey was conducted on Isla Socorro and nesting turtles were confirmed on Playa Blanca and Playa Norte. It was determined that only the black variety of this species (Chelonia mydas) nests in the property (CONANP and UABCS, 2022). In 2024, a monitoring campaign was conducted that included fieldwork and censuses on the two beaches of Socorro Island, where satellite trackers were also attached to five turtles. The tracking data documented that these turtles migrated out of the park toward the coasts of Baja California Sur and Nayarit (CONANP and UABCS, 2024).
Assessment information
The threat to birdlife and vegetation from feral cats on Isla Socorro and rabbits on Isla Clarión continues. Cat eradication efforts are carried out by the Grupo de Ecología y Conservación de Islas A.C. working with CONANP, whereas rabbit eradication has not yet materialized. Work is also underway to develop a Marine Biosecurity Protocol to prevent the introduction of invasive exotic species. Illegal fishing, as well as commercial fishing outside the National Park Revillagigedo, continues to be a latent threat despite a total fishing ban; progress has been made by incorporating satellite monitoring and training of personnel to strengthen their knowledge and skills, but the legal framework requires strengthening. Efforts are underway to reduce current and future pressure from diving tourism. A carrying capacity study is currently being conducted to determine the number of divers a site can sustain while maintaining its good ecological condition.
Invasive Non-Native/ Alien Species
(Invasive alien species)
Invasive/problematic species
Felis catus
Sus scrofa
Ovis aries
Capra hircus
Oryctolagus cuniculus
Mus musculus
Inside site
, Throughout(>50%)
Among the invasive species, those that have caused the most damage on Revillagigedo flora and fauna are rodents (domestic house mice), cats, pigs, sheep and goats (Soldatini et al., 2025). Currently, cats are the major threat to the breeding Townsend's Shearwater and other endemic and non-endemic birdlife on Socorro. Sheep and cats led to the extinction of the Socorro pigeon and the Socorro owl (Soldatini et al., 2025). Active measures are still being undertaken to control them with a view to eradication (Ortiz-Alcaraz et al., 2019). The number of feral cats is currently low (Ortiz-Alcaraz et al., 2019). The diminishing numbers of cats and the total eradication of sheep in 2012 have significantly helped in the restoration of vegetation on Isla Socorro (Ortiz-Alcaraz et al., 2019; Ruiz-Guerra et al., 2019). With a lower predation from cats on native birds that feed on caterpillars and insects, the native vegetation has increased (Ortiz-Alcaraz et al., 2019; Ruiz-Guerra et al., 2019). Rats have also been shown to be detrimental to seabird colonies, but fortunately these rodents have not been introduced to the islands. Clarión suffered the introduction of sheep, pigs, rabbits and iguanas. Pigs and sheep are now eradicated, but the rabbit population has reached tens of thousands of individuals (Soldatini et al., 2025). The rabbits on Isla Clarión are harmful to both native flora and fauna. They also cause erosion, which is detrimental to terrestrial biodiversity as well as the surrounding marine life (State Party of Mexico, 2015; IUCN, 2016). Rabbits are still present in Clarión, with an estimated population of approximately 40,000, with plans to eradicate them in the near future (IUCN Consultation, 2024, 2020). Furthermore, invasive grasses promote a permanent growth of the rabbit population. Additionally, a parallel threat for the Albatros colony is the fact that the snake endemic to Clarion (Hypsiglena ochrorhyncha unaocularus) changes its prey, focusing on easier prey such as albatross chicks instead of rabbits.
Fishing, Harvesting & Controlling Aquatic Species
(Commercial and sport fishing)
Other targeted species names
Sphyrna lewini, Galeocerdo cuvier, Carcharhinus falciformis, Carcharhinus limbatus, Carcharhinus obscurus, Thunnus albacares, Acanthocybium solandri
Inside site
, Throughout(>50%)
Outside site
Commercial industrial fishing (yellowfin tuna, wahoo fish, several shark species), fishing bycatch and sport fishing threaten marine values, although it is noted that ecological impacts have not reached serious levels since shark aggregations still occur and in greater numbers than in any other island or archipelago in the region. However, the abundance of pelagic sharks have had a downward trend from the 1970s to 2007 (Baske, 2007).
Fish biomass has continued to decline from 2006 to 2017, with a small recovery in 2023 (Monitoreo Anual CONANP, 2024), highlighting external threats and the slow time to recovery of high trophic groups. It is true that the current Revillagigedo National Park has helped in the increased sightings of sharks and tuna, but the recovery to historical abundances observed in the 1970s are yet to be seen. Favoretto et al. (2023) demonstrated that increase of protected area from 22 nautical miles around each Revillagigedo Island to a total protected area of 147,000–km2 in present Revillagigedo National Park established in 2017 did not harm industrial tuna fishing. This study indicates that well-designed MPAs benefit marine ecosystems and, in the long term, can also benefit the fisheries they support.
Unfortunately, bycatch is another threat that could affect seabirds and giant mantas, as well as isolated incidents with entangling of dolphins, thresher sharks and other pelagic fauna. Since the expansion of the no-take area to over 14 million hectares through the establishment of the National Park, fishing in all modalities has been banned (State Party of Mexico, 2018). However, the targeted species are most likely to be also threatened by illegal fishing and poaching activities (Aburto-Oropeza et al., 2017). Overall, federal protection is still limited, and sport fishing can be done illegally that impose a so far unknown scale of damage to local biota. The authorities report a high level of compliance by Mexican fishers; while satellite tracking show the absence of industrial fishing vessels since 2022 (Observatorio Marino del Aburto Lab en SIO-UCSD, 2024).
In the past seven years, eight reports have been filed due to suspected fishing activities within the boundaries of the area (IUCN Consultation, 2025). Nevertheless, as several key species are migratory, a key threat relates to poor fisheries management and enforcement outside the protected area, in Mexican waters, in other jurisdictions and in the high seas. Birds that nest in the archipelago or feed in its waters do not recognize borders, so when they leave the boundaries of the NPA they could interact with fishing vessels using gillnets (Soldatini et al., 2025)
To address this threat, the area operates two platforms with two digital platforms that constantly monitor the boats that enter the Park, the first one called skylight and the second Marine Manager of Global Fishing Watch, which use AIS to track the boats, thus obtaining their location and trajectory. For the latter platform, a workshop has been held to train Revillagigedo National Park personnel (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
Fish biomass has continued to decline from 2006 to 2017, with a small recovery in 2023 (Monitoreo Anual CONANP, 2024), highlighting external threats and the slow time to recovery of high trophic groups. It is true that the current Revillagigedo National Park has helped in the increased sightings of sharks and tuna, but the recovery to historical abundances observed in the 1970s are yet to be seen. Favoretto et al. (2023) demonstrated that increase of protected area from 22 nautical miles around each Revillagigedo Island to a total protected area of 147,000–km2 in present Revillagigedo National Park established in 2017 did not harm industrial tuna fishing. This study indicates that well-designed MPAs benefit marine ecosystems and, in the long term, can also benefit the fisheries they support.
Unfortunately, bycatch is another threat that could affect seabirds and giant mantas, as well as isolated incidents with entangling of dolphins, thresher sharks and other pelagic fauna. Since the expansion of the no-take area to over 14 million hectares through the establishment of the National Park, fishing in all modalities has been banned (State Party of Mexico, 2018). However, the targeted species are most likely to be also threatened by illegal fishing and poaching activities (Aburto-Oropeza et al., 2017). Overall, federal protection is still limited, and sport fishing can be done illegally that impose a so far unknown scale of damage to local biota. The authorities report a high level of compliance by Mexican fishers; while satellite tracking show the absence of industrial fishing vessels since 2022 (Observatorio Marino del Aburto Lab en SIO-UCSD, 2024).
In the past seven years, eight reports have been filed due to suspected fishing activities within the boundaries of the area (IUCN Consultation, 2025). Nevertheless, as several key species are migratory, a key threat relates to poor fisheries management and enforcement outside the protected area, in Mexican waters, in other jurisdictions and in the high seas. Birds that nest in the archipelago or feed in its waters do not recognize borders, so when they leave the boundaries of the NPA they could interact with fishing vessels using gillnets (Soldatini et al., 2025)
To address this threat, the area operates two platforms with two digital platforms that constantly monitor the boats that enter the Park, the first one called skylight and the second Marine Manager of Global Fishing Watch, which use AIS to track the boats, thus obtaining their location and trajectory. For the latter platform, a workshop has been held to train Revillagigedo National Park personnel (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
Fire & Fire Management
(Fire)
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
Fires are infrequent and have occurred on Clarión and Socorro islands, either accidental or caused by tropical storms (lightning) or by volcanic activity. Eruptions still occur in the islands and in submarine locations like submarine eruption in 1993 near Socorro island (Rodríguez de la Peña et al., 2025). In 2020, a fire occurred on Isla Socorro, which was controlled by personnel from the island's naval sector, park personnel, and personnel from Grupo de Ecología y Conservación de Islas A.C., a civil organization in charge of feral cat eradication on the island. Subsequently, a study of the fire was conducted to evaluate the damage it caused, resulting in an area of 4.1 ha of grassland, mostly of the invasive grass species (Cenchrus ciliaris) and croton scrub, while also affecting the fauna of land crabs (Gercacinus planatus) (IUCN Consultation, 2024; Parque Nacional Revillagigedo, 2020).
Other Human Disturbances
(Naval base)
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Two naval bases are located on Socorro and Clarión islands that change personnel every 2 months. The total population of the Revillagigedo Islands, including military personnel and conservation workers, is estimated to be about 50-60 people. As long as biosecurity plans are enforced, these two bases should not pose a significant threat to the biota of the islands. These naval bases are important, as the military helps with the protection of the site (State Party of Mexico, 2015; IUCN, 2016; State Party of Mexico, 2018). A Biosecurity Protocol was developed in 2023 (Comisión Especial de Bioseguridad Insular del Consejo Asesor del Parque Nacional Revillagigedo, CONANP, and Grupo de Ecología y Conservación de Islas, 2023) in coordination with the Secretaría de Marina - Armada de México. The document aims to ensure the implementation of biosecurity measures and evaluate the effectiveness of the protocol, thereby avoiding the entry and spread of invasive alien species through prevention and the application of early detection and rapid response systems. The successful implementation of the protocol will depend on permanent coordination with the two naval bases.
Recreational Activities
(Diving & anchoring)
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
The main recreational activity in the islands is live-aboard dive boats currently operated by nine ships that attend about 4,000 divers per year with an economic spill of about 12 million USD per year (IUCN Consultation, 2025). The carrying capacity was established in the Management Program, published in 2018. In 2023, an expedition was conducted with the objective of evaluating possible new dive sites that would help distribute the tourist load exerted on the most visited sites. The sites will begin to be suggested for use in the 2024-2025 season (Parque Nacional Revillagigedo, 2024). In 2024 and 2025, a study on carrying capacity and limits of acceptable change will be developed, with the objective of updating the previous carrying capacity of the islands (CONANP, 2024b). No mooring buoys have been installed for anchoring; anchoring is only allowed in specific sandy sites that are identified, described, and communicated by the park authorities with users (IUCN Consultation, 2024). The park management authorities have produced educational and awareness-raising materials for users, such as a manual on best practices for diving to minimize environmental impacts (Parque Nacional Revillagigedo and WildCoast, 2024). In May 2022 Socorro Vortex vessel wrecked in the Socorro island without lethal victims, but the wreck caused some moderate damage in local biota. Tourism-related boat traffic can increase the risk of collisions with marine megafauna, leading to injuries or deaths but damage with current touristic activity seem to be still negligible (Carone et al., 2025).
Geological Events
(Volcanic eruption)
Inside site
, Widespread(15-50%)
Socorro island has more than 20 active volcanoes and eruptions during the 17th and 18th centuries had negative effects in the island's ecosystem. The main volcano on Socorro, Volcán Evermann, is located in the middle of the island. In January 1993, it recorded a high increase in volcanic activity, which has caused important changes to the ecosystem, mostly in the surrounding waters, such as an increase in temperature and decrease in pH (Rodríguez de la Peña et al., 2025). The consequences for the biota have been extirpation of some algae and seagrass species and a displacement of marine fauna from that particular area. Also, on Isla San Benedicto, its main volcano, Barcena, was born in 1952 with a very violent eruption that caused the complete devastation of flora and fauna on the island and surrounding waters. Some species survived and others colonized or re-colonized the island, and to date this ecosystem is still recovering (State Party of Mexico, 2015).
Severe Weather Events
(Hurricanes)
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
Hurricanes are common and strong in the Revillagigedo islands, and can result in ocean acidification, temperature extremes, storms/flooding in the insular habitat. The main hurricane season runs from mid-May to the end of November, with peak activity in September. While native fauna and flora must adapt to hurricanes, climate change has increased the intensity of these events (CONANP, 2018; CONAGUA, 2023). Benthic fauna is naturally adapted for example endemic sea fan species are typically small and robust compared with sea fan species from rocky reefs from the Gulf of California (Olvera et al., 2018). Storms and hurricanes and strong waves drive processes that naturally promote typically moderate or low diverse rocky reefs.
Climate change poses significant potential threats through the increase in frequency and intensity of hurricanes, ocean acidification and marine heatwaves and their effects on species turnover, connectivity and recovery. In this regard, a climate change vulnerability study was conducted for the Park, presenting the results of a participatory exercise that brought together the GT-PACC, site managers, and authorities to apply the Rapid Vulnerability Assessment Tool for North American marine protected areas. This tool was adapted for the Revillagigedo Archipelago, using connectivity criteria and a landscape-based approach. The Biosecurity Protocol finalized in 2023 will require adequate implementation to prevent the introduction and spread of invasive species especially in Socorro and Clarion islands, along with information and awareness campaigns with users. Soil degradation is high, and it is necessary to implement a long-term restoration program to protect the biodiversity that inhabits the islands (IUCN Consultation, 2024). Deep-sea mining in the adjacent Clarion-Clipperton Fracture Zone could have a series of significant unintended ecological consequences that are currently poorly understood.
Invasive Non-Native/ Alien Species
(Potential introduction of rats)
Inside site
, Widespread(15-50%)
Rats have not been introduced to the islands; however, given that at times large ships dock at the naval base on Isla Socorro, adherence to established biosecurity measures to ensure that rats are never introduced to the island is essential. The Insular Biosecurity Protocol of the Revillagigedo National Park finalized in 2023 establishes rodent monitoring and control actions to determine the species that could enter and those that exist on the islands. It also establishes preventive protocols that are implemented during landings of naval vessels on Isla Socorro. In addition, permanent information and awareness campaigns will be implemented to develop preventive actions with the naval authorities and civilians visiting the island (Comisión Especial de Bioseguridad Insular del Consejo Asesor del Parque Nacional Revillagigedo, CONANP, and Grupo de Ecología y Conservación de Islas, 2023).
Problematic Native Species
(Invasive locusts)
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
On Isla Socorro, in recent years, reports of population peaks and the presence of gregarious stages of the locust Schistocerca piceifrons have raised concerns about their potential effect on the vegetation of the island. The island has historically been invaded by two species of locusts of the genus Schistocerca which tend to occupy different areas of the island. Schistocerca nitens is distributed in the middle zone of Evermann Volcano, and Schistocerca piceifrons occupies the lower elevations up to the top of the volcano and is uncommon in the forested areas. A third species Schistocerca americana socorro, which is proposed to be endemic to the island, only occurs in the forested areas. In particular, two peaks of abundance were found, one in 2006 and one in 2016, which is attributed to the fact that they were very dry and wet years.
In 2018, a study of the damage of the locust Schistocerca piceifrons on the vegetation of Isla Socorro was conducted, both in the dry season and the rainy season. The study concluded that the density of locusts found indicates that their population is not a risk to native plant vegetation, since they are not found in aggregates or in high densities (IUCN Consultation, 2024).
In 2018, a study of the damage of the locust Schistocerca piceifrons on the vegetation of Isla Socorro was conducted, both in the dry season and the rainy season. The study concluded that the density of locusts found indicates that their population is not a risk to native plant vegetation, since they are not found in aggregates or in high densities (IUCN Consultation, 2024).
Changes in Physical & Chemical Regimes, Changes in Temperature Regimes, Changes in Precipitation & Hydrological Regime
(Climate change)
Inside site
, Throughout(>50%)
Outside site
Climate change has the potential to affect the property by increasing the intensity of hurricanes, causing temperature extremes and acidification of the ocean (State Party of Mexico, 2015). Analyses in the Archipelago show a warming trend of 0.7 °C from 1880 to 2010 (Carter et al., 2020). Marine heatwaves have increased in frequency and intensity over the last decades in the Eastern Pacific (Arafeh-Dalmau et al., 2023), including Revillagigedo (Favoretto et al., 2024). This could cause a tridimensional re-organization of marine biodiversity (latitudinally and bathymetrically), reduce larval connectivity and resilience within the reserve, and slow recovery times (Arafeh-Dalmau et al., 2023). Increased sea-surface temperatures (SSTs) associated with climate change have caused bleaching in scleractinian corals (i.e. the loss of obligate symbiotic zooxanthellae) on a global basis, resulting in mass mortality of corals and decimation of reefs (IUCN Consultation, 2020). However, coral health in the property remains in good standing, with corals fully recovering from the bleaching effects brought by El Niño in 2023 (IUCN Consultation, 2024).
Climate change is presenting changes in the deep coral communities due to the increase in the depth of the thermocline. Temperature sensors have been placed at different depths to measure these changes, and quantitative censuses of these corals have been conducted at different depths to evaluate changes in their communities (CONANP, 2024a).
Park staff has been trained in the use of the Global Fishing Watch satellite platform to monitor environmental changes in the property by examining data relevant to climate change, such as temperature, oxygen, and wave height, among others (IUCN Consultation, 2024).
Climate change is presenting changes in the deep coral communities due to the increase in the depth of the thermocline. Temperature sensors have been placed at different depths to measure these changes, and quantitative censuses of these corals have been conducted at different depths to evaluate changes in their communities (CONANP, 2024a).
Park staff has been trained in the use of the Global Fishing Watch satellite platform to monitor environmental changes in the property by examining data relevant to climate change, such as temperature, oxygen, and wave height, among others (IUCN Consultation, 2024).
Other Human Disturbances
(Soil erosion - run off )
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
As Socorro island was colonized and species like goats and cows were introduced, one important impact on the soil has been the removal of vegetation cover from the soil. As result, there is a relatively localized issue with run off and soil erosion that could potentially impact marine ecosystems as coral reef patches along the shallow waters of Socorro island.
Mining & Quarrying
(Deep-sea mining)
Outside site
There are increasing chances of exploitation for polymetallic nodule extraction for battery metals in the adjacent Clarion-Clipperton Fracture Zone between 4,000-6,000 m deep, which harbours the largest concentration of these nodules on the planet and is regulated by the International Seabed Authority (ISA), for which multiple countries are not signatories. There are at least 17 contracts for mineral exploration covering 1.2 million km (Rabone et al., 2023). These deep ecosystems are highly diverse and is estimated that 88% of the species are undescribed (Rabone et al., 2023). Current evidence within the Revillagigedo reserve shows benthic and pelagic deep-sea ecosystems (below 200 m deep) are unique and show similar levels of diversity compared to the better known shallow and coastal habitats, but support biological communities that are completely different (Raineault et al., 2018; Giddens et al., 2019; Munguía-Vega et al., 2023). Unique and poorly understood ecological and evolutionary process could be disturbed by deep-sea mining, including the production of dark oxygen via sea water electrolysis taking place at the surface of the nodules, that likely sustain local food chains and respiration of animal communities (Sweetman et al., 2024). The local and cascading ecological impacts of deep-sea mining are currently unknown, but is likely that effects last for several decades or even centuries (Khripounoff et al., 2006).
Involvement of stakeholders and rightsholders, including indigenous peoples and local communities, in decision-making processes
There are no permanent resident communities living on the San Benedicto and Roca Partida islands. The main stakeholders include the naval bases on Islas Socorro and Clarión, a small number of NGOs, research institutions, tourist operators, and government authorities. Implicated stakeholders form part of the property's Advisory Council that meets at least once a year (IUCN Consultation, 2024). Although an Advisory Council has been established, the sessions do not necessarily result in agreements that lead to a positive impact on the reserve. For example, they have been unable to address the issue of invasive species, there are no concrete agreements, and there is a lack of leadership from the council president. A third-party evaluation of the council's effectiveness is necessary in order to generate options for improving governance.
Legal framework
The designation of the Archipielago de Revillagigedo as a National Park falls under the jurisdiction of the Mexican state (State Party of Mexico, 2018). The property is protected under a range of legislation pertinent to different agency jurisdictions with the principal protective legislation being the General Law of Ecological Balance and the Protection of the Environment (LGEEPA). The islands are managed by the Natural Commission of Natural Protected Areas (CONANP) in close collaboration with a number of other government authorities, various NGO and university partners, tourist operators and other stakeholders who are part of, by law, an Advisory Council that meets at least once a year (State Party of Mexico, 2015; IUCN Consultation, 2024).
Governance arrangements
Given its status as a National Park, the property is governed by some of the strictest federal legislation for protected areas, notably the LGEEPA. While the presence of on-site staff is minimal and temporal, the coordination among management authorities, including the naval bases and implicated civil society organizations, is strong. The Advisory Council meets at least once a year to discuss, analyze, and make management decisions. There was good coordination among authorities in the past; however, the budget allocated by the federal government is extremely low compared to the Park's importance, needs, significance, and size, limiting governance effectiveness.
Integration into local, regional and national planning systems (including sea/landscape connectivity)
The World Heritage site is included in the "Estrategia Nacional para la Conservación y el Desarrollo Sustentable del Territorio Insular Mexicano" (Comité Asesor Nacional sobre el Territorio Insular Mexicano, 2012). It forms part of the Mexican Protected Areas network managed by CONANP (State Party of Mexico, 2015). As many species are migratory, protected area management needs to work conjointly with effective fisheries management in other Mexican waters and in the region. This means that strong coordination is needed with other countries in the Eastern Tropical Pacific and other relevant regions, including with agencies working both on protected areas and fisheries management. An interest to work with the governments of Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia and Ecuador in the Eastern Tropical Pacific Marine Corridor (CMAR) initiative is an important step in this direction. In 2021, the National Park joined the CMAR core area network and actively participates in the work programs with all the countries and areas that are part of it, in order to improve and consolidate the protection, management and administration of the Marine Protected Areas that make up the Corridor (CONANP, 2021).
Boundaries
In response to the request by the World Heritage Committee upon the property's inscription on the World Heritage List to strengthen the level and area of protection, CONANP carried out feasibility studies and justification to declare the area a National Park in 2017. The current Revillagigedo Archipelago National Park has a total area of 14,808,780 ha of which 14,793,261 ha correspond to the marine portion and 15,518 ha to the insular terrestrial portion comprised of Islas Clarión, San Benedicto, Socorro and Roca Partida (State Party of Mexico, 2018). It should be mentioned that National Park is one of the most restrictive conservation categories in the Mexican national legislation. This category does not allow any extractive activity, including fishing, which will contribute to the conservation of biodiversity and the ecosystems and ensure the long-term protection of the Outstanding Universal Value and strengthen marine connectivity (State Party of Mexico, 2018). The increase of the area of protection of the old national biosphere reserve boundaries to the current National Park was based on a study of the movements and connectivity of sharks and mantas in the archipelago (Ketchum et al., 2020). The connectivity between these islands is crucial for many elasmobranchs such as Giant Mantas, Silvertip, Tiger, Silky, Galapagos, and Scalloped Hammerhead Sharks, as they perform long foraging forays (State Party of Mexico, 2015; Ketchum et al., 2020).
Overlapping international designations
The Archipiélago de Revillagigedo was designated as a Ramsar Site, Wetland of International Importance, in 2004. (see https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1357), with a total size equivalent to 6,367 km2. The current World Heritage property boundaries, aligning with the National Park designation in 2017, cover an area of 147,933 km2. Data on the integration of management regimes for these two designations is not available.
Implementation of World Heritage Committee decisions and recommendations
Upon inscription on the World Heritage List, the World Heritage Committee requested increased legal protection and a revision of the management plan to extend the fishing no-take zone to 12 nautical miles from the islands; strengthening invasive species eradication and biosecurity plans; managing potential increases in recreational diving; and the deployment of mooring buoys, to be reported upon by December 2018 (World Heritage Committee, 2016).
Regarding the expansion of the protected area, Mexico under a federal decree declared the Archipiélago de Revillagigedo as a National Park in November 2017 with a total area of over 14 million hectares, expanding the no-take area not only to 12 nautical miles around the islands, but including all of the previous buffer zone as a no-fishing or extraction zone (State Party of Mexico, 2018).
Regarding the eradication of invasive species, CONANP and the Revillagigedo National Park Directorate signed in 2018 a collaboration program agreement with two NGOs (Conservación de Islas and ECO) for the restoration and monitoring of native and exotic fauna of the World Heritage site and for the control and eradication of invasive species in the area (CONANP and GECI, 2019). This collaboration will continue into 2024. In this regard, it is estimated that a small population of feral cats still remains at large on Isla Socorro, which is being monitored using traps and specialized dogs for control and eradication.
Regarding the invasive rabbits and black iguanas on Isla Clarión, their numbers have been monitored and remain high in the case of the rabbits (between 30,000 and 40,000 individuals) and unknown in the case of the black iguana.
Regarding biosecurity plans, there is an Insular Biosecurity Protocol of the Revillagigedo National Park that aims to guarantee the conservation of the Outstanding Universal Value of the World Heritage property. This protocol will help to prevent the future introduction of invasive or alien species, and the control and eradication of those that are currently in the National Park (State Party of Mexico, 2018). In relation to the careful management of tourism, a Tourism Sub-Council was formed to attend to the conservation and protection of the area (CONANP, 2020).
Regarding the control of diving tourism activities, the latest update of the Carrying Capacity for Autonomous Diving of the Revillagigedo National Park, 2018 (Reyes-Bonilla et a.l, 2015; State Party of Mexico, 2018) recognizes seven diving sites regularly used by tour operators. Some of these sites were estimated to be at the limit of their carrying capacity and therefore limits have been established, particularly at Roca Partida and El Boiler as the most sensitive sites in terms of carrying capacity (Reyes-Bonilla et al., 2015). In 2023, an expedition was carried out with the objective of evaluating new diving sites that help distribute the tourist load exerted on the most visited sites. These suggested sites will begin to be used starting in the 2024-2025 season (Parque Nacional Revillagigedo, 2024). In 2024 and 2025, the study of load capacity and acceptable change limit will be developed, with the objective of updating the load capacity of the property (CONANP, 2024b).
No mooring buoys have been installed for anchoring; they are only allowed in specific sandy sites that are identified, described, and communicated by the park authorities with users (IUCN Consultation, 2024). Funding is being sought for this project. However, the management authorities have generated awareness-raising educational materials for users, such as a manual of good diving practices to minimize environmental impacts. Supervision continues through the presence of park rangers on the boats.
Regarding the expansion of the protected area, Mexico under a federal decree declared the Archipiélago de Revillagigedo as a National Park in November 2017 with a total area of over 14 million hectares, expanding the no-take area not only to 12 nautical miles around the islands, but including all of the previous buffer zone as a no-fishing or extraction zone (State Party of Mexico, 2018).
Regarding the eradication of invasive species, CONANP and the Revillagigedo National Park Directorate signed in 2018 a collaboration program agreement with two NGOs (Conservación de Islas and ECO) for the restoration and monitoring of native and exotic fauna of the World Heritage site and for the control and eradication of invasive species in the area (CONANP and GECI, 2019). This collaboration will continue into 2024. In this regard, it is estimated that a small population of feral cats still remains at large on Isla Socorro, which is being monitored using traps and specialized dogs for control and eradication.
Regarding the invasive rabbits and black iguanas on Isla Clarión, their numbers have been monitored and remain high in the case of the rabbits (between 30,000 and 40,000 individuals) and unknown in the case of the black iguana.
Regarding biosecurity plans, there is an Insular Biosecurity Protocol of the Revillagigedo National Park that aims to guarantee the conservation of the Outstanding Universal Value of the World Heritage property. This protocol will help to prevent the future introduction of invasive or alien species, and the control and eradication of those that are currently in the National Park (State Party of Mexico, 2018). In relation to the careful management of tourism, a Tourism Sub-Council was formed to attend to the conservation and protection of the area (CONANP, 2020).
Regarding the control of diving tourism activities, the latest update of the Carrying Capacity for Autonomous Diving of the Revillagigedo National Park, 2018 (Reyes-Bonilla et a.l, 2015; State Party of Mexico, 2018) recognizes seven diving sites regularly used by tour operators. Some of these sites were estimated to be at the limit of their carrying capacity and therefore limits have been established, particularly at Roca Partida and El Boiler as the most sensitive sites in terms of carrying capacity (Reyes-Bonilla et al., 2015). In 2023, an expedition was carried out with the objective of evaluating new diving sites that help distribute the tourist load exerted on the most visited sites. These suggested sites will begin to be used starting in the 2024-2025 season (Parque Nacional Revillagigedo, 2024). In 2024 and 2025, the study of load capacity and acceptable change limit will be developed, with the objective of updating the load capacity of the property (CONANP, 2024b).
No mooring buoys have been installed for anchoring; they are only allowed in specific sandy sites that are identified, described, and communicated by the park authorities with users (IUCN Consultation, 2024). Funding is being sought for this project. However, the management authorities have generated awareness-raising educational materials for users, such as a manual of good diving practices to minimize environmental impacts. Supervision continues through the presence of park rangers on the boats.
Climate action
Insufficient data is available to assess the property's contribution to climate action through ongoing management activities. A climate change vulnerability study was conducted for the Park, presenting the results of a participatory exercise that brought together the GT-PACC, site managers, and authorities to apply the Rapid Vulnerability Assessment Tool for North American marine protected areas. This tool was adapted for the Revillagigedo Archipelago, using connectivity criteria and a landscape-based approach (CONANP, 2018).
Management plan and overall management system
The property is managed as a natural protected area by the National Commission of Natural Protected Areas (CONANP) in close collaboration with other government institutions and various NGO and university partners. A comprehensive Management Program for the property is in place (CONANP, 2018). While the islands form part of a serial World Heritage property, they come under a single management system (CONANP, 2007; State Party of Mexico, 2015).
The designation of the Archipiélago de Revillagigedo as a World Heritage property, and its status as a National Park under federal jurisdiction, brings with it a certain level of stability and privilege in terms of financial and human resources, a clear legal framework, and staff with relevant expertise and experience to manage the site (IUCN Consultation, 2024). There is appropriate coordination between the relevant governmental and non-governmental actors involved in the property's management, including the participation of research organizations, and community participation, where relevant. Nevertheless, given the remote location of the property, its vastness, and the numerous natural values present, additional human, financial and technical resources would benefit its management.
The designation of the Archipiélago de Revillagigedo as a World Heritage property, and its status as a National Park under federal jurisdiction, brings with it a certain level of stability and privilege in terms of financial and human resources, a clear legal framework, and staff with relevant expertise and experience to manage the site (IUCN Consultation, 2024). There is appropriate coordination between the relevant governmental and non-governmental actors involved in the property's management, including the participation of research organizations, and community participation, where relevant. Nevertheless, given the remote location of the property, its vastness, and the numerous natural values present, additional human, financial and technical resources would benefit its management.
Law enforcement
While staffing of the World Heritage site by the management agency CONANP is modest, there is effective collaboration with the Mexican Navy that provides staffing and infrastructure support to patrol the islands and ensure the enforcement of regulations. Coordination with the fisheries authority also increases efficiency of surveillance and control activities. Currently, most of the diving liveaboards are accompanied by National Park personnel, increasing the institutional presence in the marine area (State Party of Mexico, 2018). However, the marine area is large and increased patrolling is needed to ensure enforcement of regulations (State Party of Mexico, 2018; IUCN, 2016). Automatic Identification Systems (AIS) and Vessel Monitoring System (VMS) are being used by Mexico to monitor the maritime traffic and fishing suspect activities inside and around the National Park (IUCN Consultation, 2020, 2025) and training is carried out for park personnel. Since the declaration of Revillagigedo as a National Park and its expansion to over 14 million hectares, the number of boats inside the boundaries and/or near the islands has substantially decreased (IUCN Consultation, 2020). In the past seven years, eight reports have been filed due to suspected fishing activities within the boundaries of the area (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
Sustainable finance
The area currently has a financial sustainability study, in which seven potential instruments have been identified as viable and feasible for short-, medium-, and long-term implementation. One of these instruments is scheduled to be implemented in 2025 (CONANP, 2024c; Beta Diversidad, 2024).
Since its creation and until 2023, the area had two sources of financing: the federal government and the public-private Fund for Protected Natural Areas (FANP). In 2023, the Sustainable Financing for New Protected Natural Areas (FINANP) was approved, a endowment fund that aims to promote effective management, and strengthen its connectivity and sustainable financing strategy (FMCN, 2024). In 2023, the Blue Nature Alliance was integrated with a financing project for two years (2023-2024) to strengthen the operational, management and management capacities of the Park. (Blue Nature Alliance, 2024).
Staff salaries are separate to annual budget, and there are currently 10 staff members, covered by CONANP (IUCN Consultation, 2024). Other funding comes from specific projects. Additionally, cooperation among agencies, in particular with the Navy, is important to provide the means to control the extensive waters of the World Heritage property (State Party of Mexico, 2015; Blue Parks, 2020). Coordination with the fishing authority, CONAPESCA, and other organizations further supports fishing monitoring actions, particularly through access to information from satellite monitored fishing boats, which is important to optimise control of potential illegal fishing (Blue Parks, 2020).
At the national level, additional financial resources dedicated to the management of this and all natural/mixed World Heritage properties and the protection of their OUV would be of benefit (IUCN Consultation, 2024).
Since its creation and until 2023, the area had two sources of financing: the federal government and the public-private Fund for Protected Natural Areas (FANP). In 2023, the Sustainable Financing for New Protected Natural Areas (FINANP) was approved, a endowment fund that aims to promote effective management, and strengthen its connectivity and sustainable financing strategy (FMCN, 2024). In 2023, the Blue Nature Alliance was integrated with a financing project for two years (2023-2024) to strengthen the operational, management and management capacities of the Park. (Blue Nature Alliance, 2024).
Staff salaries are separate to annual budget, and there are currently 10 staff members, covered by CONANP (IUCN Consultation, 2024). Other funding comes from specific projects. Additionally, cooperation among agencies, in particular with the Navy, is important to provide the means to control the extensive waters of the World Heritage property (State Party of Mexico, 2015; Blue Parks, 2020). Coordination with the fishing authority, CONAPESCA, and other organizations further supports fishing monitoring actions, particularly through access to information from satellite monitored fishing boats, which is important to optimise control of potential illegal fishing (Blue Parks, 2020).
At the national level, additional financial resources dedicated to the management of this and all natural/mixed World Heritage properties and the protection of their OUV would be of benefit (IUCN Consultation, 2024).
Staff capacity, training and development
Ten permanent CONANP staff with a high level of competency and skills manage the National Park. Some are based in the mainland offices and others spend long periods on the island of Socorro or onboard the live-aboard vessels (State Party of Mexico, 2018; IUCN Consultation, 2020). Generally, there is a need for further support from the Federal Government to provide more personnel with permanent positions, since half of the staff is contracted with external sources and projects (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
Education and interpretation programmes
At present there is no infrastructure dedicated to visitors on the islands, as the only visitation is by naval personnel, scientific researchers, and a small number of divers. Park rangers on board diving vessels help increase conservation awareness and capacity of dive operators (Blue Parks, 2020); these park rangers can interact closely with visitors and increase marine literacy and awareness as part of an environmental education plan. Some tourist operators support citizen science projects and activities that increase the awareness during diving trips. Conservation education is undertaken in the neighbouring states of Baja California Sur and Colima (State Party of Mexico, 2015, 2018). In 2023, social media accounts for the property were created to provide information on environmental topics. Currently, with funding from Blue Nature Alliance, an environmental education program is being developed, as well as various audiovisual materials (IUCN Consultation, 2024).
Tourism and visitation management
At present the main visitation to the islands is by naval personnel and scientific researchers. The only tourism activity is through diving companies on live-aboard vessels, which are managed through the 2018 Management Program. In relation to the careful management of tourism, a Tourism Sub-Council was formed to attend to the conservation and protection of the area (CONANP, 2020).
Sustainable use
Since the designation of the Archipielago de Revillagigedos as a National Park, it is prohibited to undergo any extraction activity in the protected area, such as fishing. Tourism is the main sustainable use and is being closely monitored by the National Park personnel (State Party of Mexico, 2018). Impact of anchoring operations and possible breaches of diving limits in some sites are being addressed through the two studies that have been and are being carried out in 2024-2025 (Parque Nacional Revillagigedo, 2024; CONANP, 2024b), with the aim of protecting and minimizing the impacts on marine ecosystems.
Monitoring
Monitoring with clear indicators is undertaken within specific time-frames by CONANP and the NGO Grupo Ecológico y de Conservación de Islas (State Party of Mexico, 2015). CONANP monitors key indicators in collaboration with researchers from Mexican universities from the Baja California and Baja California Sur states. Other NGOs also contribute to monitoring activities (CONANP, 2024a; Carmona et al., 2023; IUCN Consultation, 2024).
Research
Research in collaboration with numerous institutions is undertaken in the property's marine and terrestrial areas (State Party of Mexico, 2015). Several NGOs (e.g. Pelagios Kakunjá, Conservacion de Islas, etc.) and universities contribute significantly to an increased understanding of terrestrial and marine ecosystems. In 2023 and 2024, two expeditions were carried out to create an ecological baseline of the state of knowledge of the park, in which 12 institutions and NGOs participated (CONANP 2023). It is intended to carry out multidisciplinary research expeditions once a year (CONANP, 2024a; Carmona, et al, 2023).
Effectiveness of management system and governance in addressing threats outside the site
The greatest threat from outside the site is unsustainable fishing which could impact the OUV of the property. While the Mexican Government can manage fishing within its national waters, over-fishing in international waters could have an impact on populations of key species and overall integrity of the marine area. Deep-sea mining in adjacent waters of the high-seas could potentially impact the property, while governance and management of this nascent industry in international waters is still unclear and under debate.
Effectiveness of management system and governance in addressing threats inside the site
The area has a Management Program published in 2018 and an active Advisory Council that meets at least once a year to discuss, analyze, and make management decisions.
There are agreements with federal authorities (SEMAR and CONAFOR) to address problems and threats. The park develops its annual operational programs, a planning instrument through which the objectives and goals to be achieved in an annual period are expressed.
The area has participated in two effectiveness evaluation processes and the reports were published in the Global Database on Protected Area Management Effectiveness (GD-PAME), which is the most complete global database of protected area management effectiveness evaluations (IUCN Consultation, 2024).
There are agreements with federal authorities (SEMAR and CONAFOR) to address problems and threats. The park develops its annual operational programs, a planning instrument through which the objectives and goals to be achieved in an annual period are expressed.
The area has participated in two effectiveness evaluation processes and the reports were published in the Global Database on Protected Area Management Effectiveness (GD-PAME), which is the most complete global database of protected area management effectiveness evaluations (IUCN Consultation, 2024).
Overall, protection and management of the World Heritage site is effective, particularly with regards to its terrestrial component. However, some concerns exist with regards to the capacity to effectively manage marine areas given the vast area and limited resources for effective protection for oceanic illegal fishing activities. However, increasingly the use of satellite technologies have supported law enforcement efforts. Nevertheless, an increase in human capacity would further improve management effectiveness. Clear management procedures are in place through a comprehensive Management Program and implementation is undertaken through a number of government departments as well as other institutions and NGOs. The isolation of the site is likely the most difficult challenge in ensuring comprehensive fishing protection, but paradoxically its isolation is also the main factor that has contributed to its relatively good conservation status today.
Good practice examples
-A significant extension of the no-take area has improved the management of fisheries' impacts and presumably the conservation status of key marine species, migratory marine species and insular and oceanic habitats (Favoretto et al., 2023).
- Significant progress has been made in the management of the marine area; scientific expeditions were carried out to monitor the islands and a marine ecological baseline was developed. In 2024, a technological platform for marine and terrestrial data was developed and will be operated (IUCN Consultation, 2024). CONANP authorities play proactive function to enhance multidisciplinary scientific research organizing so far two research expeditions in April 2023 and May 2024 to estimate fish and macroinvertebrate diversity, acoustic and evaluation of potential invasive species (Reporte técnico CONANP, 2023).
- Significant progress has been made in the management of the marine area; scientific expeditions were carried out to monitor the islands and a marine ecological baseline was developed. In 2024, a technological platform for marine and terrestrial data was developed and will be operated (IUCN Consultation, 2024). CONANP authorities play proactive function to enhance multidisciplinary scientific research organizing so far two research expeditions in April 2023 and May 2024 to estimate fish and macroinvertebrate diversity, acoustic and evaluation of potential invasive species (Reporte técnico CONANP, 2023).
Exceptional landscape and seascape
Good
Trend
Stable
The landscape comprised of the four islands and the surrounding waters remain intact and largely unaffected by the current threats, with the exception of impacts to vegetation brought by the large rabbit population that is yet to be brought under control in Clarion Island and cats that are quite effective predators in Socorro Island.
Awe-inspiring underwater experience
Good
Trend
Stable
Despite some concerns regarding the potential for diving tourism growth, which are being addressed through appropriate studies and management decisions, the clarity of the waters and rich diversity of marine life, including rays, tunas, turtles, whales, and sharks, remain intact and continue to provide a remarkable sensory spectacle.
Unique set of biological and ecological processes
Good
Trend
Stable
The principal threats to terrestrial evolutionary processes are those posed by invasive species (cats, rabbits), fires, potential volcanic eruption or seismic activity, whereas illegal fishing is one of the major threats on marine portion, as well as disturbance posed by impacts from hurricanes, climate change and the volcanic eruption.
On-going terrestrial evolution
Good
Trend
Stable
The principal threats to terrestrial evolutionary processes are those posed by invasive species (cats, rabbits), as well as disturbance posed by impacts from hurricanes, fire, and the potential for volcanic eruption.
Outstanding terrestrial biodiversity
High Concern
Trend
Stable
While islands in general have low terrestrial biodiversity, the high level of endemism in the property's terrestrial flora and fauna make it unique. Terrestrial ecosystem-related values actually improved with the eradication of sheep and pigs from the islands prior to inscription on the World Heritage List. Cats are also being controlled, and after complete eradication, trends in terrestrial biodiversity should improve. Although one of its flagship species, the Socorro Island Dove, is Extinct in the Wild, it is hoped that once cats are eradicated from the island, a reintroduction of this species may take place (State Party of Mexico, 2015; IUCN, 2016). The population of rabbits, however, is still out of control and needs to be addressed as soon as possible (IUCN Consultation, 2020).
Outstanding marine biodiversity
Low Concern
Trend
Stable
The outstanding marine biodiversity remains in good condition with assessments indicating a high level of conservation for the hundreds of marine species found in the site (Aburto-Oropeza et al., 2017; Becerril-García et al., 2020; Fourriere et al., 2016, Reporte de investigación CONANP, 2023; Favoretto and Carone et al., 2025). A recent expedition to detect invasive marine species on rocky reefs found no invasive species common in mainland and a rich biota of macroinvertebrates (140 species). However there was a high prevalence of injuries to scleractinian coral colonies in Revillagigedo National Park reaching about 83% of prevalence mostly related with overgrowth of green and brown algae. The prevalence was higher than on coral reefs found on the mainland (72%) (Reporte de investigación CONANP, 2023).
Significant importance for breeding seabirds
High Concern
Trend
Stable
Cats are the major threat to the breeding Townsend's Shearwater and other endemic and non-endemic birdlife on Socorro. Bycatch from illegal fishing is also another threat that could affect seabirds. Hurricanes, fires, volcanic activity, and climate change all pose latent threats to the habitats for seabirds. Since the nesting and reproductive areas for Laysan Albatross in Mexico is limited to just two sites: Guadalupe Island, and the Revillagigedo Archipelago (Clarion and San Benedicto islands), the level of predation by snakes (Clarion) on albatross chicks is concerning, potentially compromising the survival of the colonies, especially on Clarion Island (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
Assessment of the current state and trend of World Heritage values
Stable
The outstanding marine biodiversity remains in good condition with assessments indicating a high level of conservation for the hundreds of marine species found in the site. In regard to the terrestrial biodiversity, the population of rabbits and cats, are still out of control and needs to be addressed as soon as possible. Efforts continue to eradicate invasive species and expeditions have been carried out with the support of technology to detect rabbits on Isla Clarión, in order to understand their foraging behaviour, their distribution on the island and their level of detectability in burrows and in different types of vegetation, for future stages of eradication.
Assessment of the current state and trend of other important biodiversity values
Good
Stable
It would appear that the current trend of the Green Turtle nesting population on Clarion is good and stable, but it should be noted that the IUCN World Heritage evaluation mission of 2015 was not able to visit this part of the property due to logistical reasons. Since 2022, censuses of the Green Turtle population have been conducted on Islas Clarión and Socorro. In 2023, a census was started on Clarión in which a total of 462 nesting females were counted; a census was conducted on Socorro and nesting turtles were confirmed on Playa Blanca and Playa Norte. It was determined that only the black variety of this species (Chelonia mydas) nests in the property (CONANP and UABCS, 2022). Through the physical examination of the nesting females on Clarión and Socorro, scars related to the mating process were identified; however, haematological and clinical-pathological analyses indicated that the turtles evaluated were clinically healthy (CONANP and UABCS, 2022). In 2024, a monitoring campaign was conducted that included fieldwork and censuses on the two beaches of Socorro Island, where satellite trackers were also attached to five turtles. The tracking data documented that these turtles migrated outside the park toward the coasts of Baja California Sur and Nayarit (CONANP - UABCS, 2024).
Additional information
Outdoor recreation and tourism,
Natural beauty and scenery
The main benefit to tourists in the property is recreational diving, where people can admire the exceptional scenery and underwater events (State Party of Mexico, 2015; IUCN, 2016).
The main recreational activity in the property is live-aboard dive boats. Diving tourism is limited through the Management Plan, and efforts are underway to establish carrying capacity and limits of acceptable change to ensure the sustainability of diving operations. The park management authorities have produced educational and awareness-raising materials for users, such as a manual on best practices for diving to minimize environmental impacts (IUCN Consultation, 2024). Rare ship wreck like that occurred in May 2022 (Socorro Vortex) in Socorro island can cause local pollution that fortunately was solved quickly by navy authorities and no lethal consequences for the 25 voyagers that were present during the accident.
Importance for research,
Contribution to education,
Collection of genetic material
Revillagigedo has been called the "Galapagos of Mexico", and numerous studies on the ecology and evolution of its isolated flora and fauna as well as its marine life have been and continue to be undertaken (State Party of Mexico, 2015). The Archipiélago de Revillagigedo is a natural laboratory that provides a unique opportunity to study insular and oceanic marine species, where full assemblages of this fauna are still present. These islands are considered a climate change refugia, which should underpin most current and future studies on this incredible archipelago. During a submersible expedition (Steward et al., 2016) the first data on the giant manta and tiger sharks foraging at depth was recorded (IUCN Consultation, 2024). Satellite tags deployed also recorded seasonal shifts in diving behavior, likely related to changes in the location and availability of prey. Understanding the foraging ecology of threatened species will aid in their conservation and management as feeding behavior often determines critical habitat use and spatial patterns that are important in preventing or mitigating human impacts (IUCN Consultation, 2024). In May 2023 and April 2024 CONANP Revillagigedo and Blue Nature Alliance did two multidisciplinary expeditions to do studies of phytoplankton, zooplankton, macroinvertebrates, bonny fishes, cartilaginous fishes (sharks, mantas, and rays), acoustic, bacteria, fungi, coral reef health condition, potential marine invasive species and a estimation of diversity using environmental DNA (Reporte de investigación CONANP, 2023). Both expeditions showed high biodiversity estimated suing complementary methodologies. This is a great example how CONANP Revillagigedo authorities show an unusual proactive role in research to know which is the biota living in insular habitats that they have the mision to protect.
As a natural lab, the National Park is not only a source of scientific research, but also acts as a unique space for deliver environmental education and as an example to provide important knowledge to develop and refine science-base public policies.
Fishing areas and conservation of fish stocks
The site serves as a refuge to commercial fish such as tunas, snappers, billfish and sharks, helping to protect their already pressured populations. The implementation of the 147,000 km2 no-fishing national park had a negligible impact on commercial fishery of tuna around the national park (Favoretto et al., 2023).The site also provides breeding grounds for the Clarion Angelfish which is used in the aquarium trade. The performance and productivity of the Mexican industrial fishing fleet has been assessed before and after the creation of the National Park, as the largest fully protected marine protected area in North America. No decrease in catches was found, nor was any causal link found between the variation in the spatial footprint of the industrial fleet and the implementation of the fishing protection measures associated with the National Park. The finding adds to the growing evidence that well-designed marine protected areas benefit marine ecosystems and, in the long term, can also benefit the fisheries they support (Favoretto et al., 2023).
The sustainability of fishing in the surrounding waters of the site requires further study.
Provision of jobs,
Tourism-related income
A small number of jobs are created through park management, the naval bases, and diving operators (IUCN Consultation, 2024; State Party of Mexico, 2015). Diving operations in the World Heritage site and their associated fees contribute to the economy and help finance the site's operations.
The dive tour operators with permits to carry out activities in the area are owned by individuals who are either foreigners or residents of La Paz or Los Cabos, while the certified guides come from other cities. Furthermore, the entrance fees paid per tourist to access the National Park go directly to the federal government, meaning those funds do not necessarily return to the Park itself.
Outdoor recreation and tourism,
Natural beauty and scenery
Considering that Revillagigedo National Park represents one of the a very few oceanic MPA´s in México, an important "intangible" benefit is the regional seascape level connectivity with another World Heritage marine sites along Central and South America, especially those that conform the Eastern Tropical Marine Corridor MPA´s, an political efforts to preserve the most iconic marine national parks. That connections is often underrated by Party States, but it represent and international effort under the Convention to ensure at a hemispheric level the preservation and access to the most precious marine national park, including those in Mexico.
The value of Revillagigedo National Park includes social benefits from biodiversity (currently expressed through tourism demand), food provision (through commercial fishing outside the park), and environmental regulation more broadly through nutrient cycling and carbon sequestration, which occurs through both abiotic and biotic processes, from phytoplankton to whales (Cisneros-Montemayor et al., 2024). This unique site benefits science as well as limited tourism (principally diving). To a lesser extent it provides jobs, through park management as well as the naval base and diving operations. The site serves as a refuge to commercial fish such as tunas, snappers, billfish and sharks, helping to protect their populations already under pressure. The islands also provides breeding grounds for the Clarion Angelfish which is used in the aquarium trade; however, commercial collections of this endemic fish should not be allowed in the National Park (IUCN Consultation, 2020). Revillagigedo islands are oceanic habitats that promote population isolation and speciation. These islands provide opportunities to discover new species, endemic species and help to investigate evolution, biogeography and connectivity of the biota of the islands with the mainland habitats. Mantas have shown population collection with Jalisco coast (Yelapa population), as well as copepods Peltidium nayaritthta was originally discovered in the coast of Nayarit in 2013 and in during the expedition 2023 specimens were collected in San Benedicto and Clarión islands (Palomares-García and Gómez-Gutiérrez, 2024). New endemic species of sea fans, fishes, and invertebrates like mysids have been discovered in recent years in Revillagigedo islands (Olvera et al., 2018; Victor et al., 2024).
| № | Organization | Brief description of Active Projects | Website |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Grupo de Ecología y Conservacion de Islas, A. C., CONANP | The Grupo de Ecología y Conservacion de Islas, A. C. (GECI) started a feral cat control program on Socorro in 2011 which scaled up into an eradication campaign. Cats are now absent in many sectors of the island and their low population monitored. |
http://www.revistas-conacyt.unam.mx/therya/index.php/THERYA/article/view/425
|
| 2 | Manta Trust | The Pacific Manta Research Group has been studying over 30 years the population of oceanic mantas who seasonally frequent Mexico’s Revillagigedos Islands. |
https://www.mantatrust.org/mexico-pacific
|
| 3 | CONANP, Mohamed bin Zayed Foundation | Reintroduction of Zenaida graysoni to Socorro. |
https://www.xataka.com.mx/ciencia/el-proyecto-paloma-de-socorro-busca-restablecer-la-biodiversidad-en-las-islas-mexicanas
|
| 4 | NGO Pelagios-Kakunjá | The organization carries out different studies at the Archipiélago de Revillagigedo with the following overarching goals: - Understand movement patterns, inter-island connectivity, and residency of sharks and rays using acoustic and satellite telemetry - Examine abundance, diversity and behavior of sharks and rays using Baited Remote Underwater Video Systems (BRUVS) and underwater surveys - Understand population size and structure, and connectivity of sharks and rays using genetics |
https://www.pelagioskakunja.org/revillagigedo-archipelago
|
| 5 | Whale Shark Mexico/Conexiones Terramar | A telemetry project to evaluate migratory patterns of whale sharks in the Gulf of California and surrounding areas. Through the technique of mark-recapture and the use of satellite tagging and photographic-identification, we will determine the giant manta (Mobula birostris) movements in the Eastern Pacific to know its connectivity with other areas. Performing underwater ultrasonography technique will allow us to verify the gestational stage and the degree of embryonic development to confirm and strengthen the habitat protection for the conservation of the species. |
http://www.whalesharkmexico.com/research/
|
| 6 | CONANP, Health Assessments in Sea Turtles from Baja California Sur (HAST BCS) | This project aims to assess the population status of the green sea turtle, Chelonia mydas, in the Revillagigedo Archipelago through annual monitoring of nesting sites. Additionally, it evaluates the health of the individuals, migratory routes, reproductive success, and connectivity with the mainland. |
https://www.facebook.com/p/Health-assessments-in-sea-turtles-from-BCS-100058158405963/
|
| 7 | CONANP, Blue Nature Alliance | This project was developed and is currently being monitored. During its implementation, an assessment of the park's state of knowledge and ecological health was conducted, based on which a pathway was designed to track key indicators for measuring short- and long-term changes in the ecosystem. |
https://www.bluenaturealliance.org/locations/revillagigedo-national-park/
https://www.revillagigedodashboard.org/revillagigedo-app/
|
| 8 | CONANP-PFA-CIBNOR | A genetic study was funded to determine the coral biodiversity of Revillagigedo National Park and to establish the taxonomic status of the species, as well as their connectivity with continental species. |
https://www.facebook.com/UABCSPFA
https://www.cibnor.gob.mx/
|
| 9 | Megafauna Marina y Pesquerías (MMAPE), Universidad Autónoma de Baja California Sur | Annual population surveys of humpback whales are conducted during their migrations within the park, along with surveys of other resident marine mammals. |
https://www.facebook.com/Megafauna.Marina.y.Pesquerias
|
| 10 | Grupo de Ecología y Conservacion de Islas, A. C., CONANP | The Grupo de Ecología y Conservacion de Islas, A. C. (GECI) in collaboration with CONANP have developed a monitoring program of the Revillagigedo Islands Townsend's Shearwater (Puffinus auricularis) with the objective of measuring the reproductive success of the population in Socorro. |
https://islas.org.mx/
|
| 11 | CONANP-CIPACTLI | The restoration agency CIPACTLI in coordination with CONANP, conducted an assessment in 2020 to determine the level of ecosystem degradation on Socorro Island. Additionally, pilot projects have been initiated to evaluate their effectiveness, and a soil restoration project is being developed and implemented on the island. |
https://www.facebook.com/CipactliForestal
|
| 12 | CONANP, Skylight, Global Fishing Watch | Constant monitoring is carried out of the vessels entering the Protected Natural Area through the platforms Skylight and Global Fishing Watch, in which we can see the history of visits, the speed of the vessels, their trajectory and the day and time. Data is also provided by the Satelital Monitoring Real Time System (SISMEP) from the CONAPESCA. |
https://www.skylight.global/
https://globalfishingwatch.org/
|
| 13 | Universidad de Colima (UCOL) | The aim is to develop a geological map of the island; however, a precise definition of many geological units, which are products of volcanic eruptions, is still lacking. It will be necessary to collect natural water samples and some rock specimens for subsequent analysis on the mainland. Observations and measurements of the distribution and activity of fumaroles will also be conducted, along with capturing images of the active zone using an infrared camera, as well as conducting drone flights equipped with thermal cameras. |
https://www.ucol.mx/
|
| 14 | Universidad Autónoma de México (UNAM), Instituto de Investigaciones en Ecosistemas y Sustentabilidad (IIES) | Evaluate the dynamics of forest regeneration on Socorro Island, considering its interaction with populations of Jongarthia planata crabs and other potential herbivores. The activities include: evaluation of tree vegetation, evaluation of seed predation and herbivory, and evaluation of the population dynamics of the crabs. |
https://www.iies.unam.mx/
|
| 15 | University of Arizona, Applied Genomics Lab | This a continuation of the eDNA analyses started during the 2023 scientific expedition, with the aim of establishing a three-dimensional baseline of the distribution of biodiversity of eukaryotes and fish from shallow reefs and deep samples (80-300 m) around the islands to measure ecological function, connectivity and climate change effects. |
https://datalake-cbmc-revillagigedo.s3.amazonaws.com/revillagigedo_dashboard/Expedicion_revillagigedo_2023_completa_final.pdf
|
| 16 | CICESE-La Paz, CONAHCYT | Seabirds function as bioindicators of marine ecosystem health. Mexico is particularly significant for its rich and abundant seabird populations, with its islands serving as breeding grounds for endemic and highly philopatric species. Important populations of Laysan Albatross, Mexican Shearwater, and Revillagigedo Islands Shearwater nest on Guadalupe Island, Natividad Island, and Revillagigedo Archipelago. These medium to large procellariiform species face extinction risks and utilize the Mexican portion of the California Current. Demographic studies using capture-mark-recapture models based on banding data will determine population size, survival rates, and recapture probability for these species. Their trophic relationships will be examined within the California Current's variable productivity under climate change conditions, from northern sargassum forests to tropical oligotrophic waters. Genetic analysis of regurgitations and feces will reveal diet composition, while environmental DNA analysis will help reconstruct pelagic food webs and measure species distribution changes. GPS tracking during breeding seasons will provide complementary movement data. |
https://ulp.cicese.mx/
|
| 17 | CONANP Revillagigedo, Blue Nature Alliance, Centro para la Biodiversidad Marina y la Conservación, A.C. (CBMC), Centro Interdisciplinario de Ciencias Marinas (IPN), Universidad Autónoma de Baja California Sur, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste (CIBNOR), Centro Interdisciplinario en Ciencias Aplicadas de Baja California Sur, A.C. (CIENCIAS BCS), Ecosistemas y Conservación: Proazul | Within the framework of scientific research in the Revillagigedo Archipelago, the National Commission of Natural Protected Areas (CONANP), under the direction of the Revillagigedo National Park (PNR), promoted two multidisciplinary expeditions dedicated to the study of the marine environment. This expedition was carried out between April 16 and 25, 2023 and May 2024, with the participation of 18 scientists from 10 mexican and USA institutions on board a ship that toured all the islands of the archipelago. Given the considerable distance between the PNR islands, efforts were focused on Clarión, San Benedicto and Roca Partida in first expedition and San Benedicto, Socorro, and Roca Partida. This multidisciplinary expedition investigated for the first time phytoplankton and zooplankton abundance and species composition and an acoustic survey to record sizes of aggregations of zooplankton and fishes. Additionally, it was done dive census of diversity and abundance of macroinvertebrates, bony fishes, sharks with BRUV cameras, a survey of environmental DNA that gave results from all eukaryote biota with emphasis on fishes in the islands. Other teams evaluated coral reef health, presence of potential invasive species, taxonomical studies of rocky reefs, ecology of rocky reefs, epiphytic diatoms, macroalgae and sea grass diversity. Analyses of marine bacteria and fungus and a map survey of Conocarpus erectus mangroove was also investigated. |
https://www.revillagigedodashboard.org/
|
| 18 | CONANP - Pronatura Noroeste | Through electronic logs, park rangers monitor tourist activities, which must be carried out in accordance with the rules established in the management program. |
https://pronatura-noroeste.org/en/revillagigedo-archipelago-complex-ecosystem/
|
| 19 | Programa de Investigación de Mamíferos Marinos (PRIMMA), Universidad Autónoma de Baja California Sur. | Annual population surveys of humpback whales are conducted during their migrations within the park, along with surveys of other resident marine mammals. |
https://sites.google.com/uabcs.mx/primma
|
| 20 | Departamento de Plancton CICIMAR | The Department of Plankton and Marine Ecology conducts studies on planktonic biodiversity using traditional methods such as morphological identification, and more recently, through genetic sequencing. Research projects also focus on environmental characterization, biological production, primary productivity, and the assessment of current and potential fishery resources. By studying the ecology of ichthyoplankton, zooplankton, and phytoplankton, researchers contribute to describing the phenomenon of climate change—a topic also addressed in collaboration with other scientists from CICIMAR-IPN. |
https://www.cicimar.ipn.mx/investigacion/plancton.html
|
| 21 | Servicio Sismológico Nacional (SSN), Instituto de Geofísica de la Universidad Autónoma de México (UNAM) | The National Seismological Service (SSN) and the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO) operate three seismological stations on Socorro Island. They conduct annual inspection and maintenance visits to their facilities |
http://www.ssn.unam.mx/
|
References
| № | References |
|---|---|
| 1 |
Aburto-Oropeza, O., Ballesteros, E., Ezcurra, E., Friedlander, A., Henning, B., Hoyos, M., Johnson, A.F., Mascareñas-Osorio, I., Mayorga, J.S., Muñoz, A., Salinas de León, P., Sánchez-Ortiz, C., Thompson, C. & E. Salas (2017). Informe Técnico Archipiélago de Revillagigedo: Biodiversidad, Amenazas y Necesidades de Conservación. National Geographic Pristine Seas, Mares Mexicanos. 32 pg. Available at <https://reservarevillagigedo.files.wordpress.com/2017/09/ar…; [Accessed 15 May 2020].
|
| 2 |
Arafeh-Dalmau, N., Munguia-Vega, A., Micheli, F., Vilalta-Navas, A., Villaseñor-Derbez, J. C., et al. (2023). Integrating climate adaptation and transboundary management: Guidelines for designing climate-smart marine protected areas. One Earth 6,1523-1541. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2023.10.002
|
| 3 |
Baske, A. (2007). Can Recreational Diver Surveys Lead to Conservation Action? A Case Study of the Revillagigego Archipelgo. UC San Diego: Center for Marine Biodiversity and Conservation. Retrieved from https://escholarship.org/uc/item/71s470sp
|
| 4 |
Becerril-García EE, Hoyos-Padilla EM, Henning B, Salinas-De León P. (2020). Sharks, rays, and chimaeras of the Revillagigedo National Park: An update of new and confirmed records. J Fish Biol. 1–6. https://doi.org/10. 1111/jfb.14457
|
| 5 |
Becerril‐García, E. E., Hoyos‐Padilla, E. M., Henning, B., & Salinas‐De León, P. (2020). Sharks, rays, and chimaeras of the Revillagigedo National Park: An update of new and confirmed records. Journal of Fish Biology, 97(4), 1228-1232.
|
| 6 |
Beta Diversidad (2024). Términos de Referencia: Estrategia de Financiamiento para la Gestión Efectiva del Parque Nacional Revillagigedo México. Document provided by site manager.
|
| 7 |
Blue Nature Alliance (2024). Website. Revillagigedo National Park, Mexico. https://www.bluenaturealliance.org/locations/revillagigedo-… [Accessed 5 January 2025]
|
| 8 |
Blue Parks (2020). Evaluation Report Parque Nacional Revillagigedo. Blue Parks.
|
| 9 |
CONAGUA (2023). Durante la temporada de lluvias y ciclones tropicales 2023 se formaron 37 sistemas; 8 impactaron en México. Press release No. 0890-23. 4 December 2023. Available at: https://www.gob.mx/conagua/prensa/durante-la-temporada-de-l…(
|
| 10 |
CONAGUA (2024). Resumen de la temporada de ciclones tropicales en el océano pacifico https://www.gob.mx/conagua/prensa/durante-la-temporada-de-l…(
|
| 11 |
CONAHCYT and CICESE (2023). Monitoreo de aves marinas: Reporte de expedición científica Revillagigedo 2023-2024. Document provided by site manager.
|
| 12 |
CONANP (2007). Programa de conservación y manejo. Reserva de la Biosfera Archipiélago de Revillagigedo. Ciudad de Mexico, Mexico. National Commission of Natural Protected Areas. 219 pp. Available at <http://www.dof.gob.mx/nota_detalle_popup.php?codigo=5008088…; [Accessed 15 May 2020].
|
| 13 |
CONANP (2018) Evaluación rápida de vulnerabilidad en el Parque Nacional Revillagigedo. Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo.
|
| 14 |
CONANP (2020). Acta de instalación del Subconsejo Turismo Consejo Asesor del Parque Nacional Revillagigedo. La Paz, Baja California Sur.
|
| 15 |
CONANP (2021). Se integra el Parque Nacional Revillagigedo a la Red de Áreas Marinas Protegidas del Corredor Marino del Pacífico Este Tropical (CMAR). Press reléase, 27 November 2021. Accessible at https://www.gob.mx/conanp/articulos/se-integra-el-parque-na…. [Accessed 5 January 2025].
|
| 16 |
CONANP (2023). Expedición científica en el Parque Nacional Revillagigedo 2023. Document provided by site manager.
|
| 17 |
CONANP (2024a). Informe de la expedición CONANP Revillagigedo 2024 para la creación de la línea base ecológica marina.Document provided by site manager.
|
| 18 |
CONANP (2024b). Términos de referencia para la elaboración de Estudios de Capacidad de Carga y Límite de Cambio Aceptable. Document provided by site manager.
|
| 19 |
CONANP (2024c). Estrategia de financiamiento para la gestión efectiva del Parque Nacional Revillagigedo.2024.
|
| 20 |
CONANP and GECI (2019). Convenio Específico de Concertación. La Paz, Baja California Sur. Document provided by site manager.
|
| 21 |
CONANP and UABCS (2022). Informe de monitoreo: Programa de monitoreo de anidación de tortugas marinas en el Archipiélago de Revillagigedo, Temporada 2022. Available at: https://datalake-cbmc-revillagigedo.s3.amazonaws.com/revill…
|
| 22 |
CONANP and UABCS (2024). Informe de monitoreo: Programa de monitoreo de anidación de tortugas marinas en el Archipiélago de Revillagigedo, Temporada 2024.
|
| 23 |
CONANP (2018). Programa de Manejo Parque Nacional Revillagigedo. Ciudad de Mexico, Mexico: CONANP. pp. 328. Available at: <https://simec.conanp.gob.mx/pdf_libro_pm/82_libro_pm.pdf>; [Accessed 3 January 2025]
|
| 24 |
CONANP. (2020). Informe de diagnóstico de Restauración ecológica como medida de adaptación al cambio climático en isla socorro, Parque Nacional Revillagigedo.
|
| 25 |
CONANP. (2023). Reporte Técnico de la expedición científica en el Parque Nacional Revillagigedo. CONANP. 310 p. Available: https://www.revillagigedodashboard.org/revillagigedo-app/.
|
| 26 |
Carmona, R., J. Cristerna, P. Ferruzca and JM Martínez Rodríguez (2023). Actualización de la capa de uso de suelo y vegetación y monitoreo de la funcionalidad de las obras de conservación de suelo para definir estrategias ampliadas de Restauración en Isla Socorro, Parque Nacional Revillagigedo. Capítulo 9: Línea base para un programa de monitoreo de aves terrestres en Isla Socorro, con énfasis en especies de aves invasoras. CONANP, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California Sur, Pronatura Noroeste, Cipactli.
|
| 27 |
Carone, E., Magallón Flores, C., Reséndiz, E., Urbán Rámirez, J, Ketchum, J., Hoyos Padilla, E.M., Medrano González, L. (2025). Megafauna en Revillagigedo: investigación, riesgos y rumbo futuro. En: F. Favoretto y E. Carone (Eds.). Área Marina del Parque Nacional Revillagigedo. Pasado, presente y futuro de la investigación marina. Cap. 4, pp. 145-164. Centro para la Biodiversidad Marina y la Conservación, A.C.
|
| 28 |
Centro para la Biodiversidad Marina y la Conservación, A.C. (2024). Área Marina del Archipiélago de Revillagigedo: Presente, pasado y futuro de la investigación marina (F. Favoretto & E. Carone, Eds.). La Paz, Baja California Sur, México
|
| 29 |
Cheeseman, T., K. Southerland, and J. M. Acebes. (2023). A collaborative and near-comprehensive North Pacific humpback whale photo-ID dataset. Sci Rep. 13, 10237.
|
| 30 |
Cisneros-Montemayor, A., S. Gutzmann, AL Pozas-Franco, and A. Ayala-Bocos (2024). Valoración de los servicios ecosistémicos del Archipiélago de Revillagigedo, México.
|
| 31 |
Comisión Especial de Bioseguridad Insular del Consejo Asesor del Parque Nacional Revillagigedo, CONANP, and Grupo de Ecología y Conservación de Islas (2023). Protocolo de Bioseguridad Insular para el Parque Nacional Revillagigedo.
|
| 32 |
Comité Asesor Nacional sobre el Territorio Insular Mexicano (2012). Estrategia Nacional para la Conservación y el Desarrollo Sustentable del Territorio Insular Mexicano. Secretaría de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales, Instituto Nacional de Ecología, Comisión Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas, Secretaría de Gobernación, Secretaría de Marina-Armada de México y Grupo de Ecología y Conservación de Islas, A.C. México, D.F. y Ensenada, B.C. 125 pp. Available at: <http://cambioclimatico.gob.mx:8080/xmlui/handle/publicacion…; [Accessed 15 May 2020].
|
| 33 |
FMCN (2024). Website. Financiamiento Sostenible para Nuevas Áreas Naturales Protegidas (FINANP). https://fmcn.org/es/proyectos/finanp [Accessed 5 January 2025]
|
| 34 |
Favoretto F, Salgado-Castrejon M, Rodríguez de la Peña A, Villalobos Ortiz H, Gómez Gutiérrez J. (2024). Aspectos oceanográficos y cambios climáticos. En: F. Favoretto y E. Carone (Eds.). Área Marina del Parque Nacional Revillagigedo. Pasado, presente y futuro de la investigación marina. Cap. 2, pp. 21-58. Centro para la Biodiversidad Marina y la Conservación, A.C.
|
| 35 |
Favoretto, F., C. López-Sagástegui, E. Sala, and O. Aburto-Oropeza (2023). The largest fully protected marine area in North America does not harm industrial fishing. Science Advances Vol. 9.
|
| 36 |
Favoretto, F., López-Sagástegui, C., Sala, E., & Aburto-Oropeza, O. (2023). The largest fully protected marine area in North America does not harm industrial fishing. Science Advances, 9(22), eadg0709.
|
| 37 |
Favoretto, F., Salgado-Castrejon, M., Rodriguez de la Peña, A., Villalobos, H., Gomez-Gutierrez, J. (2024). Aspectos oceanograficos y cambios climaticos. In: Área Marina del Parque Nacional Revillagigedo: Pasado, Presente y Futuro de la Investigación Marina. CMBC. Pp. 25-81. Available: https://www.revillagigedodashboard.org/revillagigedo-app/
|
| 38 |
Fernández-Sanz, H., Seminoff, J.A., Flores Gasca, L.A., Hernández Burgos, F.I., Magallón Flores, L.C., Carone, E., Guevara-Franco, J.A., Reséndiz, E. (2025). Perspectivas actuales sobre la ecología de las tortugas marinas. En: F. Favoretto y E. Carone (Eds.). Área Marina del Parque Nacional Revillagigedo. Pasado, presente y futuro de la investigación marina. Cap. 7, pp. 235-252. Centro para la Biodiversidad Marina y la Conservación, A.C.
|
| 39 |
Fourriére M, Reyes-Bonilla H, Ayala-Bocos A, Ketchum JA, Chávez-Comparan JC. (2016). Checklist and analysis of completeness of the reef fish fauna of the Revillagigedo Archipelago, Mexico. Zootaxa 4150(4): 436-466. DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4150.4.4.
|
| 40 |
Giddens, J., W. Goodell, A. Friedlander, P. Salinas-de-León, C. Shepard, B. Henning, E. Berkenpas, E. Sala, and A. Turchik. (2019). Patterns in Bathyal Demersal Biodiversity and Community Composition Around Archipelagos in the Tropical Eastern Pacific. Frontiers in Marine Science 6:388. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2019.00388
|
| 41 |
Gomez-Gutierrez, J., Villalobos-Ortiz, H., García-Fernandez, F., Martinez-Lopez, A., Saldierna-Martinez, R.J. et al. (2023). Linea de base del plancton insular del Parque Nacional Revillagigeo. In: Reporte Técnico de la expedición científica en el Parque Nacional Revillagigedo. CONANP. Pp 13-63, available: https://www.revillagigedodashboard.org/revillagigedo-app/.
|
| 42 |
IUCN (2016). World Heritage Nomination – IUCN Technical Evaluation Archipiélago de Revillagigedo (Mexico). [online] Available at: <whc.unesco.org/en/list/1510/documents/> [Accessed 5 January 2025].
|
| 43 |
IUCN Consultation (2020). IUCN World Heritage Confidential Consultation form: Respondent 1. Archipielago de Revillagigedo, Mexico.
|
| 44 |
IUCN Consultation (2024). Feedback on the 2020 IUCN World Heritage Outlook site assessment for Archipielago de Revillagigedo, Mexico.
|
| 45 |
IUCN Consultation (2025). Feedback on the 2020 IUCN World Heritage Outlook site assessment for Archipielago de Revillagigedo, Mexico.
|
| 46 |
Ketchum JT, Hoyos-Padilla M, Aldana-Moreno A, Ayres K, Galván-Magaña F, Hearn A, Lara-Lizardi F, Muntaner-Lopez G, Grau M, Trejo-Ramírez A, Whitehead D, Klimley AP (2020). Shark movement patterns in the Mexican Pacific: A conservation and management perspective. In: S. Larson & D. Lowry (Eds.), Conservation of Mexican Sharks, Advances in Marine Biology. London, UK: Academic Press
|
| 47 |
Khripounoff, A., J.-C. Caprais, P. Crassous, and J. Etoubleau. (2006). Geochemical and biological recovery of the disturbed seafloor in polymetallic nodule fields of the Clipperton-Clarion Fracture Zone (CCFZ) at 5,000-m depth. Limnology and Oceanography 51,2033-2041.
|
| 48 |
Martínez-Gómez JE y Jacobsen JK. (2004). The conservation status of Townsend’s shearwater Puffinus auricularis auricularis. Biological Conservation 116: 35-47.
|
| 49 |
Monitoreo Anual CONANP. (2024). Introducción al Reporte de Monitoreo Ecológico de Arrecifes Rocosos.Comison Nacional de Areas Naturales Protegidas. Available: https://datalake-cbmc-revillagigedo.s3.amazonaws.com/revill…
|
| 50 |
Munguia-Vega, A. Chavez-Carabantes N.,Martinez-Garza B. A. (2023). Biodiversidad de eucariotas y peces marinos del Parque Nacional Revillagigedo mediante análisis de ADN ambiental. In: Reporte Técnico de la expedición científica en el Parque Nacional Revillagigedo. CONANP. Pp 108-133, available: https://www.revillagigedodashboard.org/revillagigedo-app/.
|
| 51 |
Observatorio Marino del Aburto Lab en SIO-UCSD. (2024). Reporte de actividad de embarcaciones de pesca en Revillagigedo. Available: https://www.revillagigedodashboard.org/revillagigedo-app/
|
| 52 |
Olvera, U., Hernández, O., Sanchez, C., & Gómez-Gutiérrez, J. (2018). Two new endemic species of Gorgoniidae (Cnidaria, Anthozoa, Octocorallia) from Revillagigedo Archipelago, Mexico. Zootaxa, 4442(4), 523-538.
|
| 53 |
Ortiz-Alcaraz, A., Aguirre-Muñoz, A., Méndez-Sánchez, F., Rojas-Mayoral, E., Solís-Carlos, F., Rojas-Mayoral, B., Benavides-Rios, E., Hall, S., Nevins, H. & A. Ortega-Rubio (2019). Ecological restoration of Socorro Island, Revillagigedo Archipelago, Mexico: the eradication of feral sheep and cats. In: C.R. Veitch, M.N. Clout, A.R. Martin, J.C. Russell and C.J. West (Eds). Island invasives: scaling up to meet the challenge, Occasional Paper SSC no. 62. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. pp.267-273.
|
| 54 |
Palomares-García, J. R., & Gómez-Gutiérrez, J. (2024). Complementary description of Peltidium nayarit (Copepoda, Harpaticoida, Peltidiidae) and a new record at Revillagigedo Archipelago, Mexico. ZooKeys, 1214, 187.
|
| 55 |
Parque Nacional Revillagigedo (2020). Informe Técnico: Incendio en el sector naval de Isla Socorro, Ascrita al Parque Nacional Revillagigedo.
|
| 56 |
Parque Nacional Revillagigedo (2024). Protocolo para la caracterización y selección de sitios para el buceo recreativo en el Parque Nacional Revillagigedo, México. Adaptación y resultados de la primera aplicación.
|
| 57 |
Parque Nacional Revillagigedo and WildCoast (2024). Parque Nacional Revillagigedo and WildCoast, 2024. Manual of Good Diving Practices. Available at: https://costasalvaje.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/Islas-R…
|
| 58 |
Rabone, M., J. H. Wiethase, E. Simon-Lledo, A. M. Emery, D. O. B. Jones, T. G. Dahlgren, G. Bribiesca-Contreras, H. Wiklund, T. Horton, and A. G. Glover. (2023). How many metazoan species live in the world's largest mineral exploration region? Current biology, 33,2383–2396.
|
| 59 |
Raineault, N.A, Flanders, J., Bowman A. (eds). (2018). New frontiers in ocean exploration: The E/V Nautilus, NOAA Ship Okeanos Explorer, and R/V Falkor 2017 field season. Oceanography 31(1), supplement, 126 pp., https://doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2018.supplement.01.
|
| 60 |
Ramirez-Zuñiga, M.A., Molina-Alonzo, A. Carmona-Ruiz, Y.A., Leon-Solorzano, E. Salgado-Castrejon, M. et al. (2024). Arrecifes Rocosos. In: Área Marina del Parque Nacional Revillagigedo: Pasado, Presente y Futuro de la Investigación Marina. CMBC. Pp. 83-143. Available: https://www.revillagigedodashboard.org/revillagigedo-app/.
|
| 61 |
Reyes-Bonilla H, Ketchum JT, Cupul Magaña A, Alvarez del Castillo A, Lozano Horcasitas A. (2015) Evaluación de la capacidad de carga para buceo en la Reserva de la Biósfera Archipiélago Revillagigedo. UABCS-Pelagios Kakunjá-UdeG
|
| 62 |
Rodríguez de la Peña, A., Carey, S., Siebe, C., Salgado Castrejón, M. (2025). Origen volcánico y características geológicas. En: F. Favoretto y E. Carone (Eds.). Área Marina del Parque Nacional Revillagigedo. Pasado, presente y futuro de la investigación marina. Cap. 1, pp. 1-24. Centro para la Biodiversidad Marina y la Conservación, A.C.
|
| 63 |
Rubin, R. D., Kumli, K. R., Klimley, A. P., Stewart, J. D., Ketchum, J. T., Hoyos-Padilla, E. M., Galván-Magaña, F., Zavala-Jiménez, A.A., Fonseca-Ponce, I.A., Saunders, M., Domínguez-Sánchez, P.S., Ahuja P., Nevels C.R., Preciado-González, P.A.,& Corgos, A., Diemer, S. J. (2024). Insular and mainland interconnectivity in the movements of oceanic manta rays (Mobula birostris) off Mexico in the Eastern Tropical Pacific. Environmental Biology of Fishes, 1-14.
|
| 64 |
Ruiz-Guerra, B., Aguilar-Chama, A., de León, S. G., & Guevara, R. (2019). Invasive Species Appear to Disrupt the Top-Down Control of Herbivory on a Mexican Oceanic Island. Pacific Science, 73(1), 1-16.
|
| 65 |
SoOUV (2016). Statement of Oustanding Value Archipiélago de Revillagedo, Mexico. WHC Decision : 40 COM 8B.14 (http://whc.unesco.org/en/decisions/6792).
|
| 66 |
Soldatini, C., Lopez-Hernandez, J.A., de la Cueva, H., Albores-Barajas, Y. V. (2024). Aves marinas y costeras. In: Área Marina del Parque Nacional Revillagigedo: Pasado, Presente y Futuro de la Investigación Marina. CMBC. Pp. 253-295. Available: https://www.revillagigedodashboard.org/revillagigedo-app/.
|
| 67 |
Soldatini, C., López-Hernández, J.A., de la Cueva, H., Albores-Baraja, Y.V. 2024. Aves marinas y costeras. En: F. Favoretto y E. Carone (Eds.). Área Marina del Parque Nacional Revillagigedo. Pasado, presente y futuro de la investigación marina. Cap. 8, pp. 253-295. Centro para la Biodiversidad Marina y la Conservación, A.C.
|
| 68 |
State Party of Mexico (2015). Nomination of Archipiélago de Revillagigedo [online]. National Comission of Natural Protected Areas (CONANP) and the Secretariat of the Environment and Natural Resources (SEMARNAT). Available at: <whc.unesco.org/en/list/1510/documents/> [Accessed 15 May 2020].
|
| 69 |
State Party of Mexico. (2018). Report of the State Party to the World Heritage Committee on the state of conservation of the Archipiélago de Revillagigedo (Mexico). [online] Mexico: SEMARNAT. Available at: https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1510/documents/ [Accessed 5 January 2025].
|
| 70 |
Stewart JD, Hoyos-Padilla EM, Kumli KR, Rubin RD (2016). Deep-water feeding and behavioral plasticity in Manta birostris revealed by archival tags and submersible observations. Zoology 119(5): 406-413. doi:10.1016/j.zool.2016.05.010
|
| 71 |
Sweetman, A. K., A. J. Smith, D. S. W. de Jonge, T. Hahn, P. Schroedl, M. Silverstein, C. Andrade, R. L. Edwards, A. J. M. Lough, C. Woulds, W. B. Homoky, A. Koschinsky, S. Fuchs, T. Kuhn, F. Geiger, and J. J. Marlow. (2024). Evidence of dark oxygen production at the abyssal seafloor. Nature Geoscience,17,737-739.
|
| 72 |
Vanderplank, S.E., Wall M.A., Ezcurra, E. (eds) (2020). Report on the terrestrial expedition to the Revillagigedo Archipelago (2017). Proceedings of the San Diego Society of Natural History, #48. San Diego Society of Natural History. San Diego, CA. 176 p. Available: https://brccapi.sdnhm.org/download_file/2369/93/
|
| 73 |
Victor, B. C., Frable, B. W., & Ludt, W. B. (2024). Halichoeres sanchezi n. sp., a new wrasse from the Revillagigedo Archipelago of Mexico, tropical eastern Pacific Ocean (Teleostei: Labridae). PeerJ, 12, e16828.
|
| 74 |
World Heritage Committee (2016) Decision 40 COM 8B.14. Archipiélago de Revillagigedo (Mexico). In: Decisions Adopted by the World Heritage Committee at its 40th Session (Istanbul, 2016). [online] Paris, France: UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Available at: <http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1510/documents/>; [Accessed 4 January 2025].
|