Central Highlands of Sri Lanka
Country
Sri Lanka
Inscribed in
2010
Criteria
(ix)
(x)
The conservation outlook for this site has been assessed as "significant concern" in the latest assessment cycle. Explore the Conservation Outlook Assessment for the site below. You have the option to access the summary, or the detailed assessment.
Sri Lanka's highlands are situated in the south-central part of the island. The property comprises the Peak Wilderness Protected Area, the Horton Plains National Park and the Knuckles Conservation Forest. These montane forests, where the land rises to 2,500 metres above sea-level, are home to an extraordinary range of flora and fauna, including several endangered species such as the western-purple-faced langur, the Horton Plains slender loris and the Sri Lankan leopard. The region is considered a super biodiversity hotspot. © UNESCO
Summary
2025 Conservation Outlook
Finalised on
11 Oct 2025
Significant concern
Current state and trend of VALUES
High Concern
Overall THREATS
Overall PROTECTION and MANAGEMENT
Full assessment
Description of values
A critical habitat refuge for several globally significant and endangered species
Criterion
(x)
The endemic purple-faced langur of Sri Lanka (Semnopithecus vetulus) has evolved into several morphologically different forms recognizable today. The Sri Lankan leopard, the only representative of the genus Panthera on the island, diverged from other felids about 1.8 million years ago and is a unique sub-species (Panthera pardus kotiya). The Sri Lankan leopard is the island’s apex predator of potential keystone importance, this carnivore also fulfils “umbrella” and “flagship” criterion and is of high ecological and existence value (Kittle et al., 2018). Long isolation and the concomitant evolutionary processes have also resulted in a Sri Lankan molluscan fauna that is the most distinct in the South Asian region (World Heritage Committee, 2010).
Important and significant natural habitats for in-situ conservation of threatened and endemic vertebrate species
Criterion
(x)
The three serial components that comprise the site contain the only habitats of many threatened species and are therefore of prime importance for their in-situ conservation. The site features exceptionally high numbers of threatened species, extraordinary levels of endemism, and high levels of species richness in a number of taxonomic groups. Of the 408 species of vertebrates 83% of indigenous fresh water fishes and 81% of the amphibians in Peak Wilderness Protected Area are endemic, 91% of the amphibians and 89% of the reptiles in HPNP are endemic, and 64% of the amphibians and 51% of the reptiles in the Knuckles Conservation Forest are endemic (World Heritage Committee, 2010). Majority of land snails and freshwater crabs also exhibit very high endemism - 80% and 98% respectively are restricted to two components of the World Heritage property including their buffer zones and are in threatened categories of the IUCN Red List (National Red List of Sri Lanka 2012).
Ecological and biological processes which support the sub-montane and montane rainforests of Sri Lanka
Criterion
(ix)
The site comprises three serial properties: The Peak Wilderness Protected Area (PWPA), the Horton Plains National Park (HPNP), and the Knuckles Conservation Forest (KCF) and includes the largest and least disturbed remaining areas of the sub-montane and montane rain forests of Sri Lanka, which are a global conservation priority. The property includes areas of Sri Lankan montane rain forests considered as a super-hotspot within the Western Ghats and Sri Lanka biodiversity hotspot. More than half of Sri Lanka’s endemic vertebrates, half of the country’s endemic flowering plants and more than 34% of its endemic trees, shrubs, and herbs are restricted to these diverse montane rain forests and adjoining grassland areas (World Heritage Committee, 2010). A recent study highlighted how the hills of Sri Lanka served as “species pumps as well as refuges” throughout 31 million years of evolution, highlighting the importance of tropical montane regions for both the generation and maintenance of biodiversity (Meegaskumbura et al., 2019).
Assessment information
Key current threats to the site relate to an increasing number of invasive plant and animal species that have been identified in the property alongside the impacts of climate change including changes in precipitation and an increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events. Nine problematic species have been identified, which could have a significant impact on its Outstanding Universal Value, especially combined with the effects of climate change. A further key threat is forest dieback, which has been registered in the Horton Plains National Park component where 22 plant species are reported to be affected. A number of factors have been identified as contributing to plant vulnerability to fungal attacks, but ongoing research is still needed to find a solution to this problem. Trapping leopards using snares, as well as illegal vegetable cultivation in highland wetlands, habitat shifting due to changing climate, illegal pet trade, poaching of threatened agamid lizards and illegal collection of Sri Lankan wild Agarwood are serious threats that emerged in recent times and continue to pose a threat to the site.
Other threats emanate from seasonal and localised heavy visitation. Garbage disposal, pollution and disturbance from vehicles have been the direct result of the high number of annual visitors to the site, particularly to Horton Plains National Park and the Peak Wilderness Protected Area. In addition, unregulated tourism appears to be increasing in Knuckles Conservation Forest. New visitor management plans were being prepared for each component, but could only be found for KCF, and an action plan was being prepared to prevent and mitigate the environmental impact of the pilgrimage season in the Peak Wilderness Protected Area.
Other threats emanate from seasonal and localised heavy visitation. Garbage disposal, pollution and disturbance from vehicles have been the direct result of the high number of annual visitors to the site, particularly to Horton Plains National Park and the Peak Wilderness Protected Area. In addition, unregulated tourism appears to be increasing in Knuckles Conservation Forest. New visitor management plans were being prepared for each component, but could only be found for KCF, and an action plan was being prepared to prevent and mitigate the environmental impact of the pilgrimage season in the Peak Wilderness Protected Area.
Invasive Non-Native/ Alien Species, Pathogens
(Invasive Species )
Invasive/problematic species
Ulex europaeus
Pavo cristatus
Other invasive species names
Common carp, rainbow trout, Corvus levelliantiis
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Invasive species adversely affecting the biodiversity of the site have been identified in Knuckles Conservation Forest (KCF) and Horton Plains National Park (HPNP). Among those identified in KCF, Lantana camara is the most dominant single species. The removal of Eucalypts in 30 hectares within KCF in the Pitawala Patana grassland, and of Lantana camara in other areas, is being carried out. A programme to remove invasive species in 80 ha of KCF in 2012 was carried out with a commitment to continue the program until all identified areas are cleared from invasive species (UNESCO, 2012). However, the progress of this programme is unclear and invasive species appear to remain a problem.
The spread of Ulex europaeus has had a significant impact on the biodiversity of the HPNP (IUCN, 2010). Ulex was introduced to the HPNP during the British rule. A programme to remove the weed has been completed in 22 hectares of the 30 hectares identified for clearing (State Party of Sri Lanka, 2012). The current status of this species in the site is unclear and no update is available on the success of this previous removal.
Soil seed bank studies on three forest communities along elevational and climatic gradients in the KCF has shown that seeds of invasive species were represented comparatively less in all three forest communities indicating no significant threat from invasive species to them (Madawala et al. 2016).
The integrity of the indigenous biota of the HPNP has been jeopardized to varying extents by deliberate introductions or escapes from the surroundings. Among these are i) Gourse (Ulex europeus) invading natural grasslands; ii) Common carp and rainbow trout competing with endemic crustaceans - Caridina singhalensis; iii) Jungle crow (Corvus levelliantii) due to garbage disposal by visitors with threats to endemic lizards; iv) Indian pea fowl (Pavo cristatus) which has been recorded in the grasslands posing a threat to endemic fauna on Horton Plains and also acting as an indicator of climate change (Chandrasiri, et al., 2017; Dharmarathne et al., 2018). The current status of these species is unclear but they are likely to continue to pose a threat to the values of the site and the ongoing spread of invasive species in areas close to the forest boundary and along some nature trails, particularly in KCF and HPNP continues to be a threat to the site (IUCN Consultation, 2024)
The spread of Ulex europaeus has had a significant impact on the biodiversity of the HPNP (IUCN, 2010). Ulex was introduced to the HPNP during the British rule. A programme to remove the weed has been completed in 22 hectares of the 30 hectares identified for clearing (State Party of Sri Lanka, 2012). The current status of this species in the site is unclear and no update is available on the success of this previous removal.
Soil seed bank studies on three forest communities along elevational and climatic gradients in the KCF has shown that seeds of invasive species were represented comparatively less in all three forest communities indicating no significant threat from invasive species to them (Madawala et al. 2016).
The integrity of the indigenous biota of the HPNP has been jeopardized to varying extents by deliberate introductions or escapes from the surroundings. Among these are i) Gourse (Ulex europeus) invading natural grasslands; ii) Common carp and rainbow trout competing with endemic crustaceans - Caridina singhalensis; iii) Jungle crow (Corvus levelliantii) due to garbage disposal by visitors with threats to endemic lizards; iv) Indian pea fowl (Pavo cristatus) which has been recorded in the grasslands posing a threat to endemic fauna on Horton Plains and also acting as an indicator of climate change (Chandrasiri, et al., 2017; Dharmarathne et al., 2018). The current status of these species is unclear but they are likely to continue to pose a threat to the values of the site and the ongoing spread of invasive species in areas close to the forest boundary and along some nature trails, particularly in KCF and HPNP continues to be a threat to the site (IUCN Consultation, 2024)
Mining & Quarrying
(Illegal gem mining )
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Illegal gemming has been a problem in the past. Strict enforcement measures adopted by the Forest Department and Department of Wildlife Conservation appear to have effectively controlled these activities taking place within the Peak Wilderness Protected Area (State Party of Sri Lanka, 2012).
Recreational Activities
(High number of visitors )
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
While the numbers of visitors to the site post COVID-19 pandemic travel restrictions are unclear they are likely to be rebounding. The high number of annual visitors to the site, especially to Horton Plains National Park (HPNP) and Peak Wilderness Protected Area (PWPA), prior to COVID-19 was an identified threat to the site with numbers going beyond carrying capacity at peak periods. During the vacation months, an excessive number of visitors were being recorded in HPNP, and endemic vertebrate fauna is threatened by road-kills as well as visitor disturbances (Karunarathna et al., 2017; Dhananjani et al., 2022). Visitor impacts also relate to the annual pilgrimage of two million visitors who trek to Adam’s Peak within PWPA. These impacts are localized and temporal in that a closed season of six months allows for ecological recovery (IUCN, 2010).
Knuckles Conservation Forest (KCF) was noted as experiencing an increasing and unregulated visitor pressures, specially from uncontrolled ecotourism trends, which was beginning to show significant impacts and pose a serious problem to threatened species prior to COVID-19 restrictions. While the restrictions may have given the site time to recover, as tourism increases the threat remains to the values of the site. Indeed, over visitation during holydays in Knuckles conservation area and Horton plain national park remains a source of threat to the site's OUV (IUCN consultation, 2024). Also, Peak wilderness protected area is affected by over visitation during the off season.
Previous work has identified tourism marketing plans for KCF (Humke, 2018a; Humke, 2018b) and the ESCAMP project developed a visitor management plan for KCF (ESCAMP & MW&FRC, 2023) but the extent to which the plan has been implemented is unclear.
The main environmental problems caused by visitor numbers in these component parts of the site include haphazard garbage disposal, pollution and disturbance from vehicles, and road kills (UNESCO, 2012; Dasanayake et al., 2019; IUCN consultation, 2024) and an increasing trend of illegal entries and camping by visitors in unauthorised areas (IUCN Consultation, 2024).
A newly described reptile species (Aspedura desilvai) was found to be threatened by acute habitat loss caused by a number of impacts related to tourism including increased and unregulated ecotourism, road kills, and fires caused by human activity. The impacts of these threats will only exacerbate the impacts from forest fragmentation, illegal cardamom plantations, uncontrolled gem mining, and the introduction and spread of invasive alien species (Wickramasinghe et al., 2019).
Knuckles Conservation Forest (KCF) was noted as experiencing an increasing and unregulated visitor pressures, specially from uncontrolled ecotourism trends, which was beginning to show significant impacts and pose a serious problem to threatened species prior to COVID-19 restrictions. While the restrictions may have given the site time to recover, as tourism increases the threat remains to the values of the site. Indeed, over visitation during holydays in Knuckles conservation area and Horton plain national park remains a source of threat to the site's OUV (IUCN consultation, 2024). Also, Peak wilderness protected area is affected by over visitation during the off season.
Previous work has identified tourism marketing plans for KCF (Humke, 2018a; Humke, 2018b) and the ESCAMP project developed a visitor management plan for KCF (ESCAMP & MW&FRC, 2023) but the extent to which the plan has been implemented is unclear.
The main environmental problems caused by visitor numbers in these component parts of the site include haphazard garbage disposal, pollution and disturbance from vehicles, and road kills (UNESCO, 2012; Dasanayake et al., 2019; IUCN consultation, 2024) and an increasing trend of illegal entries and camping by visitors in unauthorised areas (IUCN Consultation, 2024).
A newly described reptile species (Aspedura desilvai) was found to be threatened by acute habitat loss caused by a number of impacts related to tourism including increased and unregulated ecotourism, road kills, and fires caused by human activity. The impacts of these threats will only exacerbate the impacts from forest fragmentation, illegal cardamom plantations, uncontrolled gem mining, and the introduction and spread of invasive alien species (Wickramasinghe et al., 2019).
Unknown Threats
(Illegal pet trade, poaching of threatened agamid lizards and illegal collection of Agarwood, snaring of leopards)
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
Outside site
Research continues to highlight how rare agamid lizards and other reptile species, particularly those found only in Sri Lanka are trafficked and sold as exotic pets, prompting conservationists to renew their call for enhanced global protection for several of these species. The lucrative nature of the exotic pet trade incentivizes poachers and traffickers and seriously threatens populations of the animals being poached in the wild (Handunnetti, 2019; Rodrigo, 2019a; TRAFFIC, 2019).
During the past few years illegal and unsustainable removal of Sri Lankan Agarwood (Gyrinops walla) trees has been taking place in all protected areas including the components of the Central Highlands World Heritage site (Gunatilleke et al., 2014; Rodrigo, 2019b) and an increase in the level of snaring of leopards is of concern (Kittle et al., 2018).
During the past few years illegal and unsustainable removal of Sri Lankan Agarwood (Gyrinops walla) trees has been taking place in all protected areas including the components of the Central Highlands World Heritage site (Gunatilleke et al., 2014; Rodrigo, 2019b) and an increase in the level of snaring of leopards is of concern (Kittle et al., 2018).
Changes in Physical & Chemical Regimes, Changes in Temperature Regimes, Changes in Precipitation & Hydrological Regime
(Increasing frequency of forest fires, extreme weather events, changes in precipitation)
Inside site
, Widespread(15-50%)
Outside site
Data on the current site specific impact of climate change related threats is not available for the site. Nonetheless, impacts of climate change on species' compositions, ranges, seasonal cycles, habitat preferences, increased/decreased precipitation and extreme weather events have been detected in other similar sites in Sri Lanka (Samarasinghe et al., 2022) and for taxa found within the site (e.g., Sumanapala, 2020), allowing to assess this threat as high. Changes to weather patterns and a higher frequency and intensity of natural disasters such as landslides, storms and droughts are increasingly likely to affect the site and the increased occurrence of forest fires in the dry season in KCF has been observed (IUCN Consultation, 2024). Monitoring for and assessment of climate change impacts is urgently needed with the information used to inform management actions used for the maintenance of biodiversity and to safeguard ecosystems. Monitoring needs to focus on and examine trends in the ecological status of the existing ecosystems and species in the area, particularly the numerous endemic species. In the longer term climate change is expected to cause a general shift of vegetation zones and species distributions. However, details of impacts on the biodiversity are limited and unavailable at the current time.
Unknown Threats
(Forest dieback)
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
Forest dieback was first observed in 1946 on some mountain slopes of HPNP and subsequent studies have revealed some 22 plant species have been affected, most probably caused by fungal attack, with other environmental factors contributing to make the trees vulnerable (State Party of Sri Lanka, 2012). Forest dieback has now been recorded in all three components of the property, and represents a serious problem to ecosystem health (IUCN consultation, 2024). Although some preliminary research has been undertaken on the forest dieback phenomenon in HPNP, studies are yet to be carried out in the other two components (IUCN Consultation, 2014). Forest canopy dieback in Horton Plains assessed using multispectral satellite data have shown that while 27% (area of 9.5 km2) of the total forest reserve is affected by forest dieback, environmental variables examined viz. slope, aspect and Topographic Wetness Index have a significant positive influence on dieback (Rupasinghe et al., 2017). Research has indicated that the pH of the mist, reaching values as low as 3.9 during the April-May period, may cause chemical stress in trees exposed to this acid mist affecting their physiological and biochemical stability (Pethiyagoda, 2012 pages 133 -136 and the references therein).
Hunting, Collecting & Controlling Terrestrial Animals
(Trapping leopards using snares)
Other targeted species names
Leopard
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
Outside site
Of the total 79 leopard deaths reported during the past decade, 42 deaths were caused by snare-induced injuries. Data for 2010-2020 also show that 90% of leopards that get caught in snares die from their injuries (Rodrigo, 2020). During economic difficulties, many people would explore alternatives such as cultivating vegetable plots by clearing little corridors that are essentially paths used by wildlife such as leopards, setting up snares either to protect their plots or to catch wild game.
Data on leopard mortality in the central highlands from September 2018 to September 2024 were gathered from records maintained by the respective regional offices of the Department of Wildlife Conservation (DWC) and other related institutions. A total of 54 leopard deaths were recorded in the central highlands during the study period. Regarding the causes of death, 66.7% of the animals were killed by humans, while 20.4% of the deaths were of unknown cause. Only 12.9% of the deaths were attributed to natural causes. Among human-caused deaths, 29 (80.6%) were due to snare traps, one was poisoned, and three each were caused by shooting and vehicle accidents. In five cases, individuals were found in possession of poached leopard skins and body parts. Although most leopard deaths were due to anthropogenic causes, most were accidental killings, where locals had set snares targeting other animals for bushmeat. However, the possession of leopard body parts by certain individuals suggests the existence of a black market for body parts of leopards, likely driven by poverty and local myths. These findings highlight the urgent need for an effective leopard conservation program in the central hills. Such programs must include strategies to communicate and educate the local community about the species and its ecological importance, initiatives to reduce poverty-driven bushmeat dependency, well- trained and equipped wildlife rescue teams, and robust law enforcement systems to combat illegal hunting and illegal trade (Fernando et al. 2025).
Data on leopard mortality in the central highlands from September 2018 to September 2024 were gathered from records maintained by the respective regional offices of the Department of Wildlife Conservation (DWC) and other related institutions. A total of 54 leopard deaths were recorded in the central highlands during the study period. Regarding the causes of death, 66.7% of the animals were killed by humans, while 20.4% of the deaths were of unknown cause. Only 12.9% of the deaths were attributed to natural causes. Among human-caused deaths, 29 (80.6%) were due to snare traps, one was poisoned, and three each were caused by shooting and vehicle accidents. In five cases, individuals were found in possession of poached leopard skins and body parts. Although most leopard deaths were due to anthropogenic causes, most were accidental killings, where locals had set snares targeting other animals for bushmeat. However, the possession of leopard body parts by certain individuals suggests the existence of a black market for body parts of leopards, likely driven by poverty and local myths. These findings highlight the urgent need for an effective leopard conservation program in the central hills. Such programs must include strategies to communicate and educate the local community about the species and its ecological importance, initiatives to reduce poverty-driven bushmeat dependency, well- trained and equipped wildlife rescue teams, and robust law enforcement systems to combat illegal hunting and illegal trade (Fernando et al. 2025).
Annual & Perennial Non-Timber Crops
(Illegal vegetable cultivation in highland wetlands)
Outside site
Habitat deterioration and degradation, clearing of vegetation, siltation, water pollution, and spread of invasive alien species are significant threats to highland wetlands. Studies revealed that most of the marshy lands and seasonal streams of tea plantations, which support odonates, amphibians, and birds, have been transformed for domestic agriculture by the estate community in the Central Highlands (Kottawa-Arachchi, 2017). The current status of the threat is not clear.
Boundaries are well defined for Horton Plains National Park and Knuckles Conservation Forest, but inadequate boundary demarcation of the Peak Wilderness Protected Area is hampering protection and conservation. Law enforcement is still not fully effective in stopping illegal activities within the buffer zones. These include poaching, small scale illegal logging, and land clearing encroachment from human settlements, with new land-clearing continuing. At present this threat is considered to be relatively low, however, on-going action is required to ensure indirect effects do not become significant.
Unknown Threats
(Buffer zone management practices )
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
Boundaries are well defined for HPNP and KCF, but not for PWPA, which continues to impact protection and conservation. Clear boundary demarcation is needed to identify the private lands that fall within the boundaries. Without this, illegal expansion of these lands and new land clearing will continue to increase (IUCN SOC, 2012). Buffer zone management practices vary among the three components. Effectively functioning buffer zones exist for HPNP and PWPA, ensuring protection from threats arising from outside the boundaries of the site. The revised and updated management plans for these two components were initially included in the ESCAMP project for implementation from 2017 onwards (IUCN Consultation, 2017) but no updated plans could be found so it is unclear if this process has been completed.
Other Human Disturbances
(Human settlements on the periphery )
Outside site
KCF has the highest number of human settlements on its periphery with around 86 villages in the buffer zone. This proximity of settlements poses the biggest threat to the site, however, the legal framework and community cooperation initiatives that are in place should ensure adequate protection of the site. Actions have been initiated to identify new opportunities to work with buffer zone communities and to strengthen the law enforcement activities in the periphery of the property (State Party of Sri Lanka, 2012). Several peripheral villages of the NE Knuckles component of the property were evacuated during the construction of the Moragahakanda and Kaluganga reservoirs and these reservoir reservation lands are to be transferred to the Forest Department for conservation management (IUCN Consultation, 2017).
Nearly 90% of the Red slender loris (Tardigradus nycticeboides) population, which inhabits natural montane forests has been lost to human settlements, tea plantations, Eucalyptus/Pinus plantations and the remainder are under threat due to forest dieback, firewood collection by local people, forest fire and encroachment by alien invasive species. The Zoological Society of London’s EDGE of Existence programme ranked L. tardigradus within the top 100 of global mammal priority species based on its evolutionary distinctiveness (ED) and global endangerment (GE). The L. tardigradus is further listed among Sri Lanka's five most concerned species by the Department of Wildlife Conservation Sri Lanka (Gamage et al., 2016).
Nearly 90% of the Red slender loris (Tardigradus nycticeboides) population, which inhabits natural montane forests has been lost to human settlements, tea plantations, Eucalyptus/Pinus plantations and the remainder are under threat due to forest dieback, firewood collection by local people, forest fire and encroachment by alien invasive species. The Zoological Society of London’s EDGE of Existence programme ranked L. tardigradus within the top 100 of global mammal priority species based on its evolutionary distinctiveness (ED) and global endangerment (GE). The L. tardigradus is further listed among Sri Lanka's five most concerned species by the Department of Wildlife Conservation Sri Lanka (Gamage et al., 2016).
Involvement of stakeholders and rightsholders, including indigenous peoples and local communities, in decision-making processes
The overall management plan for this serial property and the initial three different management plans for its components were prepared in collaboration with key stakeholders. That State Party furthermore outlines community engagement with 32 Community Based Organisations in the buffer zone of KCF as well as implementation of community forestry programmes (UNESCO, 2012). Friends of Horton Plains established in 2008 consisting mostly of representatives from the neighboring tea plantation community, researchers from the Tea Research Institute, Thalawakele and other volunteers are conducting awareness programs on the co-existence strategies for reduction of human-wildlife conflicts by gaining a better understanding of the wildlife behavior in the buffer zone of the Horton Plains National Park (Kottawe-Arachchi and Gamage, 2018). Despite this involvement with local stakeholders there are limited opportunities for participation by local people including development of livelihood activities (IUCN Consultation, 2024).
Legal framework
All three areas that make up the site are state-owned and under governmental protection. Legal frameworks are in place to ensure maintenance of the OUV.
The components of the site - Peak Wilderness Protected Area (PWPA), Horton Plains National Park (HPNP) and Knuckles Conservation Forest (KCF) - all fall under different management categories receiving different kind of protection. Knuckles conservation forest is legally protected by Forest Conservation Ordinance. Peak Wilderness Protected Area Nature and Horton Plains National Park are legally protected by the Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance. These areas are also managed by two state agencies. PWPA is a sanctuary managed by the Department of Wildlife Conservation (DWC), in which certain human activities are allowed (e.g. collection of NTFP). Entry in the PA is not restricted or regulated. HPNP is a National Park managed by the DWC, but under a much higher degree of protection than the PWPA. Entry without a ticket (fee payment) is illegal and no human activities are allowed (other than visiting and site seeing). KCF is managed by the Forest Department under a protection regime similar to PWPA.
The components of the site - Peak Wilderness Protected Area (PWPA), Horton Plains National Park (HPNP) and Knuckles Conservation Forest (KCF) - all fall under different management categories receiving different kind of protection. Knuckles conservation forest is legally protected by Forest Conservation Ordinance. Peak Wilderness Protected Area Nature and Horton Plains National Park are legally protected by the Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance. These areas are also managed by two state agencies. PWPA is a sanctuary managed by the Department of Wildlife Conservation (DWC), in which certain human activities are allowed (e.g. collection of NTFP). Entry in the PA is not restricted or regulated. HPNP is a National Park managed by the DWC, but under a much higher degree of protection than the PWPA. Entry without a ticket (fee payment) is illegal and no human activities are allowed (other than visiting and site seeing). KCF is managed by the Forest Department under a protection regime similar to PWPA.
Governance arrangements
The component properties of the site are administered by two different agencies including the Department of Wildlife Conservation and the Forest Department. While the management framework provides guidance and a structure for coordination between the agencies, the effectiveness of this has not been assessed. Overall the governance structures for the site appear to be adequate although as noted, coordination between the government agencies could be improved.
Integration into local, regional and national planning systems (including sea/landscape connectivity)
There are provisions in place for coordination of management between the two government institutions that manage the property (the Forest Department and the Department of Wildlife Conservation), as well as for stakeholder involvement (UNESCO, 2012). The National REDD+ Investment Framework and Action Plan (NRIFAP) identified policies and measures (PAMs) for i) Improving forest law enforcement and monitoring ii) scaling-up of forest boundary survey, demarcation and declaration among a host of other PAMs to improve the forest cover under both institutions and while there was to be priority attention for the World Heritage property (REDD+ SL 2017) the extent to which this has been implemented and achieved remains unknown. The National Biodiversity Strategic Action Plan (NBSAP 2016-2022) has a detailed account of i) Biodiversity of Sri Lanka, trends and linkages to human-wellbeing, ii) Causes and consequences of biodiversity loss, iii) Existing institutional, legal and policy framework for biodiversity conservation, iv) Barriers and challenges for effective conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, and v) setting national targets and finally the national strategic action plan and the requirements for its effective implementation. Most of the concerns described in this Outlook assessment document (2025) in relation to Central Highlands WHS were included in the NBSAP 2016-2022 but no updated NBSAP could be located.
Boundaries
Boundaries are well defined for HPNP and KCF, but not for PWPA, which is hampering protection and conservation. Buffer zones are established for all three components of the property, however, law enforcement continues to be ineffective in stopping illegal activities within the buffer zones, including poaching, small scale illegal logging, and land clearing (UNESCO, 2012). Boundary demarcation of PWPA is included in the ESCAMP project plan (IUCN Consultation, 2017) but has not been completed and only 50 % of the boundaries of all the central highland protected areas are demarcated by erecting concreate posts in Knuckles Conservation Forest (IUCN Consultation, 2024).
Overlapping international designations
No overlapping designations
Implementation of World Heritage Committee decisions and recommendations
In general, the State Party has been responsive to Committee concerns and decisions. The State Party has been actively addressing issues and the management planning system to support the site (State Party of Sri Lanka, 2012). Other recommendations to expedite the development of an effective management and monitoring framework for tourism and a commitment to ensure adequate staffing and funding remain outstanding.
Climate action
No information is available in terms of protection and management actions in response to climate change impacts within the site. The threats posed by climate change, including changes in rainfall, increases in extreme weather events, potential reduction in water availability and increase in the number and intensity of fire in dry periods (IUCN Consultation, 2024), and temperate extremes, are difficult to respond to from a management perspective. However, the impacts from these will only confound impacts from other threats, including human activities, and management responses are urgently needed.
Management plan and overall management system
Each of the components of the serial site had management plans developed and an overall management framework is in place (State Party of Sri Lanka, 2012). In 2011, and again in 2023, the State Party reported that these plans were only partially implemented (UNESCO Periodic Report, 2011, 2023) and the component properties are now in need of updated management plans. Inadequate staff capacity and funding limited the effective implementation of the management plans (UNESCO, 2012) and it is likely that this is still the case. All management plans were to be revised and funding was pledged by the World Bank ESCAMP project for 5 years (IUCN Consultation, 2017). However, no new management plans could be found and they are not listed on the project website.
While an initial overarching management framework developed (State Party of Sri Lanka, 2012). However, no management effectiveness assessment has been undertaken and concerns remain regarding arise the adequacy of staffing and funding, as well as the effectiveness with which tourism is being managed. The State Party has been encouraged to include as part of the planned regular monitoring of threats, the regular evaluation of the effectiveness of management provisions, in order to ensure that existing and new threats are effectively controlled (World Heritage Committee, 2012).
While an initial overarching management framework developed (State Party of Sri Lanka, 2012). However, no management effectiveness assessment has been undertaken and concerns remain regarding arise the adequacy of staffing and funding, as well as the effectiveness with which tourism is being managed. The State Party has been encouraged to include as part of the planned regular monitoring of threats, the regular evaluation of the effectiveness of management provisions, in order to ensure that existing and new threats are effectively controlled (World Heritage Committee, 2012).
Law enforcement
Enforcement of the relevant laws and regulations is somewhat effective within the property. However, enforcement of protective legislation is considered inadequate in the buffer zones and surrounding areas (UNESCO Periodic Report, 2011, 2023), which also impacts on the site’s OUV through for example poaching, small scale illegal logging and farming encroachment. This deficiency was to be addressed during the implementation of the ESCAMP and NRIFAP projects (IUCN Consultation, 2017). However, progress on this is unclear and law enforcement appears to remain limited, often impacted by a lack of facilities and incentives for management and protection staff of the site (IUCN Consultation, 2024).
Sustainable finance
Funding is split between outside sources (World Bank funded projects) and governmental sources with management costs dependant on annual allocation from the central government (State Party of Sri Lanka, 2023). According to the State Party, funding is acceptable but could be further improved and secure ober both medium- and long-term (State Party of Sri Lanka, 2023). However, inadequate staff capacity and funding are considered limiting the effective implementation of management plans and management of tourism (UNESCO, 2012; IUCN consultation, 2024). The internationally funded ESCAMP project and NRIFAP project were identified as providing extra funding to execute updated management plans prepared with broad stakeholder participation (IUCN Consultation, 2017). However, the sites are not listed as focal areas for the projects and no updated management plans could be found, bringing into question whether any funds were provided for the site under these projects.
Staff capacity, training and development
Staff at the site are fulltime, permanent and relatively well trained. However, their numbers remain inadequate to fully manage the site (UNESCO Periodic Report, 2011) and to address law enforcement challenges. The Forest Department Staff training at field level (Range Forest officers and Beat Forest Officers, both new recruits and in service trainees) is conducted at SL Forestry College. Similarly, the Department of Wildlife has recruited about 50 field officers and they have been given training at HPNP Giritale Wildlife Training Center and in several other strategic locations (IUCN Consultation, 2017).
Education and interpretation programmes
The lack of facilities for education has been identified as a weakness of the property (IUCN consultation, 2024).
In the past, there were several awareness programs aired through national television network that focus on the values and biodiversity of the site. The programs - Wild Asia and Sobadhara - are professionally done with advice from experts and experienced wildlife professionals. Annual Wildlife conferences held in 2015-2017 were also very successful and Wildlife Department personnel, University researchers and NGOs actively participated in these annual events. It is unclear if they are currently implemented.
The journals Wild Lanka published by the DWLC and Loris and Warana published by the Wildlife and Nature Protection Society of Sri Lanka are popular among wildlife enthusiasts and schoolchildren. A number of books on birds, butterflies, reptiles, lizards and amphibians of Sri Lanka have been published (e.g., Gamage, 2014; Jayasinghe et al., 2012). Although these are not specific to the World Heritage properties, the information in them is still useful to the visitors. An authoritative book on Horton Plains NP was edited by Pethiyagoda in 2012.
In the past, there were several awareness programs aired through national television network that focus on the values and biodiversity of the site. The programs - Wild Asia and Sobadhara - are professionally done with advice from experts and experienced wildlife professionals. Annual Wildlife conferences held in 2015-2017 were also very successful and Wildlife Department personnel, University researchers and NGOs actively participated in these annual events. It is unclear if they are currently implemented.
The journals Wild Lanka published by the DWLC and Loris and Warana published by the Wildlife and Nature Protection Society of Sri Lanka are popular among wildlife enthusiasts and schoolchildren. A number of books on birds, butterflies, reptiles, lizards and amphibians of Sri Lanka have been published (e.g., Gamage, 2014; Jayasinghe et al., 2012). Although these are not specific to the World Heritage properties, the information in them is still useful to the visitors. An authoritative book on Horton Plains NP was edited by Pethiyagoda in 2012.
Tourism and visitation management
There is a general lack of education programmes, information and awareness building throughout the visitor destinations of the site. Fees collected make some contribution to the management of the site (UNESCO Periodic Report, 2011) and a number of educational programmes and activities have been developed (IUCN Consultation, 2017). A nature-based tourism plan for the Knuckles Forest Reserve has been prepared under ESCAMP project and is being made available for implementation (Humke, 2018a; 2018b; ESCAMP & MW&FRC, 2023). Two trekking guides, one for the Peak Wilderness Protected Area Complex and the other for the Knuckles Conservation Forest have been produced by the IUCN Sri Lanka Country Office in collaboration with Department of Wildlife Conservation (Perera et al., 2018a; 2018 b). There is a concern regarding tourism related waste management, pollution and disturbance from vehicles, and an effective management and monitoring framework for tourism to address environmental impacts of the high number of visitors is still needed (UNESCO, 2012). Improvements are needed in regard to management of tourism numbers, which often exceed capacity and an increase in illegal access including camping has been noted (IUCN Consultation, 2024).
The major human use for the site is from around two million pilgrims who visit the Adam’s Peak annually and contribute to both forest and environmental degradation along the pilgrim trails leading up to the peak. Volunteers help to remove rubbish after the visit but management of such high numbers requires improvement.
The major human use for the site is from around two million pilgrims who visit the Adam’s Peak annually and contribute to both forest and environmental degradation along the pilgrim trails leading up to the peak. Volunteers help to remove rubbish after the visit but management of such high numbers requires improvement.
Sustainable use
Subsistence wild plant collection occurs within the site, however, other uses such as livestock grazing and crop production occur outside (UNESCO Periodic Report, 2011). Illegal and unsustainable removal of Sri Lankan Agarwood (Gyrinops walla) trees had been taking place in all protected areas including the Central Highlands WHS (Gunatilleke et al. 2014; Rodrigo, 2019b). Some illegal and unsustainable use is occurring in the buffer zones.
Monitoring
There is an integrated programme of monitoring, which addresses management needs and contributes to improving the understanding of the site’s OUV (UNESCO Periodic Report, 2011). However, whether this is currently adequate is unknown especially in the face of climate change impacts. Research to identify methods to improve ground water recharge in the site is needed (IUCN Consultation, 2024) as well as subsequent monitoring to detect changes in ground water.
Monitoring of tourism impacts remains lacking (UNESCO, 2012). Monitoring vegetation cover changes of Horton Plains National Park (HPNP) from 1998-2008 using a practical geo-informatics approach for adaptive management has been carried out. While the forest cover has increased, the grass cover has decreased (Abeysinghe et al., 2014) and no current information on the vegetation cover appears available.
Vegetation cover changes in the grassland habitats of HPNP are being monitored parallel to the management interventions of invasive Gorse (Ulex europaeus) eradication programs and implications on other faunal and floral species were being currently studied. A decline in the Black lipped lizard population has been identified after the removal of Ulex europaeus (Jayasekara et al., 2020) but the status of other species in the site is relatively unknown.
Monitoring of tourism impacts remains lacking (UNESCO, 2012). Monitoring vegetation cover changes of Horton Plains National Park (HPNP) from 1998-2008 using a practical geo-informatics approach for adaptive management has been carried out. While the forest cover has increased, the grass cover has decreased (Abeysinghe et al., 2014) and no current information on the vegetation cover appears available.
Vegetation cover changes in the grassland habitats of HPNP are being monitored parallel to the management interventions of invasive Gorse (Ulex europaeus) eradication programs and implications on other faunal and floral species were being currently studied. A decline in the Black lipped lizard population has been identified after the removal of Ulex europaeus (Jayasekara et al., 2020) but the status of other species in the site is relatively unknown.
Research
There has been an increasing trend in research directed towards management needs to help ensure the maintenance of the OUV in recent times. However, the status of this work is largely unknown. A robust estimate of the population density of Sri Lanka’s apex predator in Horton Plains National Park within the montane zone was published in 2018 (Kittle and Watson, 2018b) providing valuable baseline information for the species and region and contributing towards a more detailed understanding of the status of the Leopard in Sri Lanka. No updated assessment could be found.
A comparative biodiversity survey in two fragmented forest patches in the Central Highlands revealed that they form an important component of Sri Lanka's natural heritage and act as reservoirs for future biodiversity preservation through appropriate connectivity with larger protected areas such as Knuckles reserve (Kittle et al. 2016). Factors influencing the occurrence using occupancy modeling required for effective conservation of Montane Slender Loris (Loris tardigradus nycticeboides), which is an endangered and endemic primate species, has shown that most suitable habitats for Montane Slender Loris occupancy was montane forests situated in 1600-2100 m altitude with tall canopy (height 4m) and good canopy connectivity (canopy openings 25%). Only 3500 ha of such forest habitats are available at present, thus the Montane Slender Loris remains under considerable threat (Gamage et al., 2015). Feeding ecology of Sri Lankan Leopard studied by prey base (scat) analysis has shown that there is a shift to suboptimal prey indicating scarcity of primary prey species. These studies provide valuable information on prey base diversity, dynamics and habitat quality. Therefore, knowledge on the feeding ecology of the Sri Lankan Leopard is helpful in planning protected areas and an overall strategy for the conservation of this endangered species (Sooriyabandara, 2015). The ecotourism potential of the Horton Plains National Park (HPNP) has been carried out using a catalogue of criteria (Flagship attractions, Complementary and support attractions, Accessibility and regional infrastructure, climate and general political and social frameworks) and the values for biodiversity and landscape are comparatively high at HPNP (Rathnayake, 2014).
Research on the endemic species found within the site remains a topic of importance (e.g., Proiadarshana et al., 2019; Senanayake et al. 2018; Senanayake et al. 2019; Senevirathne et al., 2018).
A comparative biodiversity survey in two fragmented forest patches in the Central Highlands revealed that they form an important component of Sri Lanka's natural heritage and act as reservoirs for future biodiversity preservation through appropriate connectivity with larger protected areas such as Knuckles reserve (Kittle et al. 2016). Factors influencing the occurrence using occupancy modeling required for effective conservation of Montane Slender Loris (Loris tardigradus nycticeboides), which is an endangered and endemic primate species, has shown that most suitable habitats for Montane Slender Loris occupancy was montane forests situated in 1600-2100 m altitude with tall canopy (height 4m) and good canopy connectivity (canopy openings 25%). Only 3500 ha of such forest habitats are available at present, thus the Montane Slender Loris remains under considerable threat (Gamage et al., 2015). Feeding ecology of Sri Lankan Leopard studied by prey base (scat) analysis has shown that there is a shift to suboptimal prey indicating scarcity of primary prey species. These studies provide valuable information on prey base diversity, dynamics and habitat quality. Therefore, knowledge on the feeding ecology of the Sri Lankan Leopard is helpful in planning protected areas and an overall strategy for the conservation of this endangered species (Sooriyabandara, 2015). The ecotourism potential of the Horton Plains National Park (HPNP) has been carried out using a catalogue of criteria (Flagship attractions, Complementary and support attractions, Accessibility and regional infrastructure, climate and general political and social frameworks) and the values for biodiversity and landscape are comparatively high at HPNP (Rathnayake, 2014).
Research on the endemic species found within the site remains a topic of importance (e.g., Proiadarshana et al., 2019; Senanayake et al. 2018; Senanayake et al. 2019; Senevirathne et al., 2018).
Effectiveness of management system and governance in addressing threats outside the site
The buffer zone provided by the natural forests outside 50% of the KNF acts as a protection layer to the site alongside the one mile zone of Horton Plains National Park and Peak Wilderness Protected Area (Nature Reserve). However, the state of the buffer zones in terms of land use and current management practices varies across the three components. The buffer zones are legally protected under a range of laws, however, boundary ambiguities, inadequate staffing and funding, and poor enforcement are failing to address the range of illegal buffer zone activities such as poaching, small scale illegal logging, firewood collection and land clearing and these threats remains an issue outside the boundaries of the site. Although some measures have been taken concerns still remain. Increased water extraction in the face of climate change impacts including changes in precipitation and the need to deal with waste generated by tourism, aside from the direct impacts resulting from increased visitation, remain a challenge and while efforts have been made to address these issues management appears constrained through limited resources to fully address these issues. External threats to the site are considered at present to be relatively moderate, notwithstanding the need for continued vigilance in addressing these and the potential for the level of threat to increase if they are not adequately addressed.
Effectiveness of management system and governance in addressing threats inside the site
The site enjoys adequate legal protection under Sri Lankan law and it is clear that management efforts continue to be directed at threatening processes. However, limited resourcing in terms of staffing levels as well as incentives for management and protection of the sites remain an issue. While an overall management framework has been developed for the serial site, updated site level management plans are needed and threats from high levels of visitation, including increasing illegal camping and access to restricted areas remain an issue that has not been addressed. Adequate staffing and funding need to be made available for the effective implementation of management efforts to address threats within the site.
The site enjoys adequate legal protection under Sri Lankan law and management efforts continue to be directed at threatening processes. An overall management framework was developed for the site, as well as management plans for each of the component parts of the property but these require updating and an assessment of management effectiveness would help identify ongoing issues. A need for the development of an effective management and monitoring framework for tourism was identified and some progress has been made in this regard with a tourism management plan developed for KCF but similar plans are needed for the other parts of the property. In order to implement these planning strategies, adequate staffing and funding need to be made available for the effective implementation of management plans.
Good practice examples
Long-term research on a novel and multi-pronged means of circumventing human-leopard conflict by establishing ‘wildlife corridors’ to give the leopards - and other creatures - safe passage through the Central Highlands, thus reducing encounters with human beings.
Watson and Kittle won the prestigious Whitley Award for Nature in April 2018 for their project on ‘Leopards as a flagship for wildlife corridors’: //roar.media/english/life/environment-wildlife/of-tea-estates-leopards-and-the-prestigious-green-oscars-a-conservation-story/
Two populations of endemic and critically endangered species (Hedyotes quinquinervia) have been recollected after 100 years from Horton Plains National Park in a new geographic location for this species and a few individuals have been planted and being monitored at the Hakgala Montane Botanic Gardens for its success in ex-situ conditions (Harasgama et al., 2014).
Watson and Kittle won the prestigious Whitley Award for Nature in April 2018 for their project on ‘Leopards as a flagship for wildlife corridors’: //roar.media/english/life/environment-wildlife/of-tea-estates-leopards-and-the-prestigious-green-oscars-a-conservation-story/
Two populations of endemic and critically endangered species (Hedyotes quinquinervia) have been recollected after 100 years from Horton Plains National Park in a new geographic location for this species and a few individuals have been planted and being monitored at the Hakgala Montane Botanic Gardens for its success in ex-situ conditions (Harasgama et al., 2014).
A critical habitat refuge for several globally significant and endangered species
High Concern
Trend
Deteriorating
Threats such as invasive species, impacts of increased tourism and other ecosystem modifications such as forest dieback and climate change are all affecting the site’s habitats. Despite these threats, the values remain relatively well preserved. Although to ensure this remains the case further efforts are needed to address the threats to the site and improved law enforcement is urgently required to prevent further impacts from over visitation in particular.
Conversion of wetlands to agricultural plots, gem-mining, snare-trapping of leopards, illegal collection of plants and animals for trade and forest encroachment appear to be on the increase (Kottawa-Arachchi, 2017; Rodrigo, 2020) and combined with the ever increasing impacts from climate change need urgent attention to ensure the values of the site remain. While the ecosystem continues to harbour a diverse array of endemic and endangered species within unique ecological niches, these anthropogenic activities have subjected certain forest patches to heightened stress (Perera et al. 2024).
Conversion of wetlands to agricultural plots, gem-mining, snare-trapping of leopards, illegal collection of plants and animals for trade and forest encroachment appear to be on the increase (Kottawa-Arachchi, 2017; Rodrigo, 2020) and combined with the ever increasing impacts from climate change need urgent attention to ensure the values of the site remain. While the ecosystem continues to harbour a diverse array of endemic and endangered species within unique ecological niches, these anthropogenic activities have subjected certain forest patches to heightened stress (Perera et al. 2024).
Important and significant natural habitats for in-situ conservation of threatened and endemic vertebrate species
High Concern
Trend
Deteriorating
Several invasive species, both flora and fauna, have been identified in the property and continue to have a significant impact on the habitat value of the site. Eradication programs were being implemented to address the problems of invasive alien species (State Party of Sri Lanka, 2012) but their progress and success is unclear. Forest dieback occurs on the slopes of Horton Plains National Park (HPNP) and is believed to be due to a fungal pathogen. On-going research is yet to find a solution to the problem (State Party of Sri Lanka, 2012) and the current extent of die-back is also unclear but reported as significant (MoMD&E, 2019). Boundary ambiguities, inadequate staffing and funding, and poor enforcement are failing to address a range of illegal buffer zone activities such as poaching, small scale illegal logging, firewood collection and land clearing, which are also impacting on the property values. Illegal removal of Sri Lankan Agarwood both inside and outside the property appears to be continuing. Natural habitats of HPNP have been identified as important refuge areas for three of the threatened agamid fauna of the island; Black lipped lizard (Calotes nigrilabris), Rhino-horned lizard (Ceratophora stoddartii) and Pigmy lizard (Cophotis ceylanica). This was re-confirmed by Wijerathne et al. (2025) who reported that the distribution of five agamid species included the Central Highlands (> 900 m), with four species (Ceratophora stoddartii, Calotes nigrilabris, Cophotis ceylanica and Calotes liocephalus) restricted to the mountain range. Key conservation lands like Sinharaja Forest, the Knuckles Range, and Central Highlands require expanded and enhanced protection and habitat connectivity to safeguard Ceylonese endemic agamids.
The overall distribution of Sri Lankan vertebrate diversity (both current and future), illustrates that the species richness of endemic species is concentrated in the southwestern region of Sri Lanka, with specific hotspots in the Central hills, and then in the peripheral mountain ranges of the Knuckles and Rakwana. In general, there are severe losses in species diversity at high-elevations and less intense gains at low elevations, including the central mountain
massif, and the separate ranges of the Knuckles and Rakwana (the eastern sector of the Sinharaja World Heritage Reserve). Although species at higher elevations suffered, currently threatened species were not more vulnerable to range reduction. Most of the rare amphibians and reptiles found in the central hills, as well as the isolated ranges, are at serious risk of extinction due to rising temperatures. (Wijerathne 2025b). This is confirmed by the 6th National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity in which the Central Highlands Zone is identified as the most vulnerable region, since changing climatic patterns, agricultural expansion projects and forest dieback are all drastically affecting the survival of amphibian species (MoMD&E, 2019).
The overall distribution of Sri Lankan vertebrate diversity (both current and future), illustrates that the species richness of endemic species is concentrated in the southwestern region of Sri Lanka, with specific hotspots in the Central hills, and then in the peripheral mountain ranges of the Knuckles and Rakwana. In general, there are severe losses in species diversity at high-elevations and less intense gains at low elevations, including the central mountain
massif, and the separate ranges of the Knuckles and Rakwana (the eastern sector of the Sinharaja World Heritage Reserve). Although species at higher elevations suffered, currently threatened species were not more vulnerable to range reduction. Most of the rare amphibians and reptiles found in the central hills, as well as the isolated ranges, are at serious risk of extinction due to rising temperatures. (Wijerathne 2025b). This is confirmed by the 6th National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity in which the Central Highlands Zone is identified as the most vulnerable region, since changing climatic patterns, agricultural expansion projects and forest dieback are all drastically affecting the survival of amphibian species (MoMD&E, 2019).
Ecological and biological processes which support the sub-montane and montane rainforests of Sri Lanka
Low Concern
Trend
Deteriorating
In montane forests such as the Knuckles, Peak wilderness and Horton Plains, forest dieback remains a concern. Spread of invasive species, such as Ageratina riparia and Austroeupatorium inulifolium, have substantially affected and altered the floristic character of montane forests. Mining along Upper Hakgala, Kandapola–Seetha Eliya and the illegal extractions of forest products such as orchids, ornamental flora, medicinal plants and firewood are also significant threats. Application of weedicides to maintain pilgrim routes with increasing tourism and the carving out of footpaths are leading to the further fragmentation of sensitive habitats. Waste disposal, especially during the pilgrimage periods in Peak Wilderness area, needs to be addressed immediately if these ecosystems are to be conserved (MoMD&E, 2019).
Assessment of the current state and trend of World Heritage values
Deteriorating
The values of the site continue to be impacted by a number of threats including the spread of invasive species, impacts of increasing tourism, anthropogenic pressures and other ecosystem modifications, which need on-going management effort and adequate staffing and funding. Climate change impacts are relatively unknown but based on other sites in Sri Lanka are without doubt already impacting the property. A lack of baseline data on populations and habitat quality will only hamper management efforts in detecting and addressing climate related threats. There remains a need to fully develop a management and monitoring framework for tourism. This is essential as the high number of visitors, including pilgrims, has an increasing environmental impact on the site. There remains a need for clearer demarcation of the property boundaries. Illegal activities are still being undertaken in the property’s buffer zones, including poaching, small scale illegal logging and land clearing and more effective law enforcement could address this.
Additional information
History and tradition,
Sacred natural sites or landscapes
Adam’s Peak in PWPA has deep religious significance as it is believed to have the imprint of the footprint of the Lord Buddha. This phenomenon brings huge numbers of tourists and pilgrims each year to the peak summit beyond the carrying capacity during the peak season from January to April each year from three main pilgrim trails.
Disturbance to the forest along the pilgrim trails is cumulative year on year. Pollution of streams and excessive loads of garbage left behind by pilgrims is also a serious concern. The impacts require volunteers including police and armed forces who, at the end of the pilgrim season conduct clean-up operations from the top to the bottom of the peak.
Outdoor recreation and tourism
The increase in the annual number of tourists to the site brings an increase in opportunities for employment for locals including tour guides, as well as the employment that goes with providing services for tourists and maintaining the areas that are heavily visited. It is not clear the extent to which benefits from tourism are being maximised.
Carbon sequestration,
Soil stabilisation,
Flood prevention,
Water provision (importance for water quantity and quality)
The protection of the forests as a catchment area provides water resources for the many communities downstream and on the periphery of the site.
The protection of biodiversity and water resources underpins Sri Lanka’s sustainable development and landscape productivity, for example its extensive tea plantations. More specific to this site is its importance in the development of an eco-tourism industry to capitalise on the already huge numbers of tourists and pilgrims who flock to the site.
| № | Organization | Brief description of Active Projects | Website |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Forest Department/ Community Groups | Approximately 600 Community Based Organizations (CBOs) are operating in the buffer zone villages. These community organizations have been formed to implement various community development programs. The Forest Department has been working with 32 such organizations established exclusively for the protection of Knuckles under the name “Dumbara Surakinno” (Protectors of Knuckles). These works include implementing the department’s regular community forestry programs. |
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| 2 | Forest Department/ Department of Wildlife Conservation | Management of catchment area within KCF by removal of invasive species, fire protection and removal of cardamom cultivation. Funding for this has been made through the Moragahakanda irrigation project. The program to remove invasive eucalypts found mainly in Pitawala Patana grassland, and Lantana in other areas, will continue until all identified areas are cleared of invasive species. |
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| 3 | IUCN Sri Lanka | A consortium of private sector estates and other partners working with HPNP to enhance conservation and connectivity. |
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| 4 | IUCN Sr Lanka, HSBC, Department of Wildlife Conservation | Waste management is an essential service to ensure the continuity of the conservation value of the Horton Plains National Park (HPNP) and Peak Wilderness Nature Reserve (PWNR). These two locations are managed by the Department of Wildlife Conservation (DWC) of the Government of Sri Lanka and known to have high visitor numbers. For example, the PWNR is being visited by about 3 million visitors every year. The waste management has been a challenge due to resources and high visitation pressure. As such the HSBC Bank joined DWC with IUCN as the facilitator to provide support to manage waste in a timely manner. |
https://lk.chm-cbd.net/projects/supporting-waste-management-horton-plains-national-park-hpnp-and-peak-wilderness-nature
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| 5 | World Bank, Ministry of Wildlife and Forest Resources Conservation | The World Bank has extended a credit to the Government of Sri Lanka (GOSL) for the Ecosystem Conservation and Management Project (ESCAMP) from 2017 to 2022. The objective of this project is to improve the management of sensitive ecosystems in selected locations for conservation and community benefits. The Ministry of Wildlife and Forest Conservation (MW&FC) executes the project through a Project Management Unit (PMU). |
https://www.mwfc.gov.lk/escamp/
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| 6 | UNREDD | This National REDD+ Investment Framework and Action Plan (NRIFAP) is a cross-sectoral five year (2018-2022) USD 99 million investment framework financed from both domestic and international sources. The vision for REDD+ has been developed as: "Forests and beyond; sustaining life and livelihoods in a greener Sri Lanka”. Sri Lanka will harness the transformational potential of REDD+ to ensure improved land management practices that protect, maintain and enhance ecological functions and social benefits, while sustaining current economic growth. This Vision forms part of the national approach to improving the overall effectiveness of the country’s forest and land management regimes. A number of key cross cutting goals to be achieved through REDD+ include: climate change mitigation; sustainable land management; restoration and maintenance of ecosystem services; sustaining current economic growth; and minimize natural disaster risks. To address the identified drivers of forest cover change, the NRIFAP identified 13 Policies and Measures (PAMs), which have been categorized under three priority policy areas: (i) Forest, Wildlife and Watershed, (ii) Land Use Planning and (iii) Other Forested Lands. |
https://www.un-redd.org/partner-countries/asia-pacific/sri-lanka
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References
| № | References |
|---|---|
| 1 |
Abeysinghe, K.R.K., Ranawana, K. B., Eranda, M.G. and Nilanthi, R.M.R. (2014). Change detection in vegetation cover of Horton Plains National Park for adaptive management: A practical geoinformatics approach WILDLANKA-Journal of the Department of Wildlife Conservation 2:113-131. (ISSN 1800-1777).
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| 2 |
Biodiversity Secretariat, Ministry of Mahaweli Development and Environment, Sri Lanka. pp.200
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| 3 |
Chandrasiri, P.H.S.P., Dharmarathne, W.D.S.C., Lakmal, S.B.R. and Mahaulpatha, W.A.D. (2017). Distribution of the Jungle Crow (Corvus levallantii Lesson, 1831) and their potential threats to biodiversity in Horton Plains National Park, Sri Lanka. WILDLANKA vol.5(2):73-77.
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| 4 |
Dasanayake, T.D., Kalhari, T. and Mahaulpatha, W.A.D. (2019). Effects of vehicle disturbance on tetrapod vertebrates within the Horton Plains National Park. Proceedings of the Wildlanka International Symposium 2019.
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| 5 |
Dhananjani, T., Kalhari, K., and Mahaulpatha, W. (2022). Influence of recreational trails on species diversity of tetrapod vertebrates within the Horton Plains National Park, Sri Lanka. Scientific Reports in Life Sciences, 3(3), 69–81. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7094240
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| 6 |
Dharmarathne, W.D.S.C., Chandrasiri, P.H.S.P., and Mahaulpotha. (2018). Arrival of Indian peafowl, Pavo cristatus to the Horton Plains National Park could be a risk to the endemic fauna? WILDLANKA vol. 6: 32-35.
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| 7 |
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| 8 |
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| 9 |
Fernando, B. V. P., Karawita, H., Jayapali, U., Pinidiya, M. A., & Wijesinghe, C. G. (2025, April). Understanding the Rising Threat to Sri Lankan Leopards in Central Hills; A Causation Analysis. In Proceedings of International Forestry and Environment Symposium (Vol. 29).
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| 10 |
Gamage, R. (2014). An illustrated Field Guide to the Fauna of Sri Lanka Vol. 1 Butterflies. www.faunaofsrilanka.com
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| 11 |
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| 12 |
Gamage, S.N., Hettiarachchi, C.J., Mahanayakage, C.A., Padmalal, U.K.G.K. and Kotagama, S.W. (2016). The Red Slender Loris (Loris tardigradus). WILDLANKA Vol. 4(2):70-78.
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| 13 |
Gunatilleke, N., Gunatilleke, S. and Punchi-Manage, R. (2014). Ecological Traits Underpinning Sustainable Management of Gyrinops walla Gaertn. (Thymelaeaceae) (aka - Sri Lankan Agarwood)
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| 14 |
Handunnetthi, D. (2019). Study documents how Sri Lanka’s protected reptiles are traded as pets.
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| 15 |
Harasgama, V., Wijewickrama, T., Rathnayake, S. and Attanayake, A. (2014). Rediscovery of Hedyotes quinquinervia Thw. (Rubiaceae): A critically endangered shrub from Horton Plains, Sri Lanka. Proceedings of the International Forestry and Environment Symposium of the Department of Forestry and Environment Science , University of Sri Jayewardenapura, Sri Lanka p. 24.
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| 16 |
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| 17 |
Humke, M. (2018b). Tourism Marketing Plan. Knuckles Conservation Forest (https://www.escamp.lk/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Tourism-Ma…).
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| 18 |
IUCN Consultation. (2017). IUCN World Heritage Confidential Consultation: Central Highlands of Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka.
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| 19 |
IUCN Consultation. (2024). IUCN World Heritage Confidential Consultation: Central Highlands of Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka.
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| 20 |
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| 21 |
Jayasekara, D., Keerthirathna, L. and Mahaulpatha, D. (2020). Population densities and conservation assessment of three threatened agamid species in Horton Plains National Park, Sri Lanka. Journal of Wildlife and Biodiversity, 4(3), pp.70-79.
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| 22 |
Jayasinghe, H.D., Rajapakshe, S.S., and De Alwis, S. (2012). A pocket guide to the butterflies of Sri Lanka Second edition Butterfly Conservation Society of Sri Lanka.
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| 23 |
Karunarathna, S., Ranwala, S., Surasinghe, T. and Madawala, M. (2017). Impact of vehicular traffic on vertebrate fauna in Horton plains and Yala national parks of Sri Lanka: some implications for conservation and management. Journal of Threatened Taxa, 9(3), pp.9928–9939
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| 24 |
Kittle, A.M. and Watson, A.C. (2018a). Small wildcats of Sri Lanka – some recent records. Cat News 68:9-12.
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| 25 |
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