Central Highlands of Sri Lanka

Each of the components of the serial site has management plans in place and an overall management framework has been developed. (State Party of Sri Lanka, 2012). In 2011 the State Party reported that plans are only partially implemented (UNESCO Periodic Report, 2011) and this is still the case. Inadequate staff capacity and funding are limiting the effective implementation of the new management plans (UNESCO, 2012). The components of the site - Peak Wilderness Protected Area (PWPA), Horton Plains National Park (HPNP) and Knuckles Conservation Forest (KCF) - all fall under different management categories receiving different kind of protection. These areas are also managed by two state agencies. PWPA is a sanctuary managed by the Department of Wildlife Conservation (DWC), in which certain human activities are allowed (e.g. collection of NTFP). Entry in the PA is not restricted or regulated. HPNP is a National Park managed by the DWC, but under a much higher degree of protection than the PWPA. Entry without a ticket (fee payment) is illegal and no human activities are allowed (other than visiting and site seeing). KCF is managed by the Forest Department under a protection regime similar to PWPA. All management plans are being revised and funding has been pledged by the World Bank ESCAMP project for 5 years (IUCN Consultation, 2017).

The site has an overarching management framework as well as individual management plans for each component of the serial site (State Party of Sri Lanka, 2012). However, management effectiveness relates to how well the plans are able to be implemented. In this regard concerns arise regarding the adequacy of staffing and funding, as well as the effectiveness with which tourism is being managed. (UNESCO, 2012). The State Party has been encouraged to include as part of the planned regular monitoring of threats, the regular evaluation of the effectiveness of management provisions, in order to ensure that existing and new threats are effectively controlled (World Heritage Committee, 2012).

Boundaries are well defined for HPNP and KCF, but not for PWPA, which is hampering protection and conservation. Buffer zones are established for all three components of the property, however, law enforcement is not fully effective in stopping illegal activities within the buffer zones, including poaching, small scale illegal logging, and land clearing (UNESCO, 2012). Boundary demarcation of PWPA is included in the ESCAMP project plan (IUCN Consultation, 2017).

There are provisions in place for coordination of management between the two government institutions that manage the property (the Forest Department and the Department of Wildlife Conservation), as well as for stakeholder involvement (UNESCO, 2012). The National REDD+ Investment Framework and Action Plan (NRIFAP) has identified policies and measures (PAMs) for i) Improving forest law enforcement and monitoring ii) scaling-up of forest boundary survey, demarcation and declaration among a host of other PAMs to improve the forest cover under both institutions and there will be priority attention for the World Heritage property (REDD+ SL 2017).
The National Biodiversity Strategic Action Plan (NBSAP 2016-2022) has given a detailed account of i) Biodiversity of Sri Lanka, trends and linkages to human-wellbeing, ii) Causes and consequences of biodiversity loss, iii) Existing institutional, legal and policy framework for biodiversity conservation, iv) Barriers and challenges for effective conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, and v) setting national targets and finally the national strategic action plan and the requirements for its effective implementation. Most of the concerns described in this Outlook assessment document (2020) in relation to Central Highlands WHS have been strategized in the NBSAP 2016-2022.

An overall management plan for this serial property and three different management plans for its components were prepared in collaboration with key stakeholders. That State Party furthermore outlines community engagement with 32 Community Based Organisations in the buffer zone of KCF as well as implementation of community forestry programmes (UNESCO, 2012).
A comprehensive Management Plan for the Horton Plains National Park (2012) -  a component of the Central Highlands of Sri Lanka World Heritage Site is being currently reviewed along with that of the Peak Wilderness Protected Area by the Department of Wildlife Conservation.
Friends of Horton Plains established in 2008 consisting mostly the representatives from the neighboring tea plantation community, researchers from the Tea Research Institute, Thalawakele and other volunteers are conducting awareness programs on the co-existence strategies for reduction of human-wildlife conflicts by gaining a better understanding of the wildlife behavior in the buffer zone of the Horton Plains National Park (Kottawe-Arachchi and Gamage, 2018).

All three areas that make up the site are state-owned and under governmental protection. Legal frameworks are in place to ensure maintenance of the OUV, although as a National Park, HPNP is a managed under a much higher degree of protection than the PWPA and KCF.

Enforcement of the relevant laws and regulations is overall effective within the property. However, enforcement of protective legislation is considered inadequate in the buffer zones and surrounding areas. (UNESCO Periodic Report, 2011), which also impacts on the site’s OUV through for example poaching, small scale illegal logging and farming encroachment. This deficiency is to be addressed during the implementation of the (ESCAMP and NRIFAP projects 2018 onwards (IUCN Consultation, 2017).

In general, the State Party has been responsive to Committee concerns and decisions. The State Party has been actively addressing issues and the management planning system to support the site has been recently completed (State Party of Sri Lanka, 2012). Other recommendations to expedite the development of an effective management and monitoring framework for tourism and a commitment to ensure adequate staffing and funding are still outstanding (UNESCO, 2012).

Subsistence wild plant collection occurs within the site, however, other uses such as livestock grazing and crop production occurs outside (UNESCO Periodic Report, 2011). During the past few years, illegal and unsustainable removal of Sri Lankan Agarwood (Gyrinops walla) trees has been taking place in all protected areas including the Central Highlands WHS (Gunatilleke et al. 2014; Rodrigo, 2019b). Some illegal and unsustainable use is occurring in the buffer zones.

Funding is split approximately 1/3 from outside sources and 2/3 from governmental sources. According to the State Party, funding is inadequate and not secure (UNESCO Periodic Report, 2011). Inadequate staff capacity and funding are limiting the effective implementation of management plans and management of tourism (UNESCO, 2012). The internationally funded ESCAMP project and NRIFAP project due to start next year will provide extra funding to execute the revised and updated management plans prepared with broad stakeholder participation (IUCN Consultation, 2017).

All staff at the site are fulltime and permanent, however, their number is inadequate to fully manage the site (UNESCO Periodic Report, 2011). The Forest Department Staff training at field level (Range Forest officers and Beat Forest Officers, both new recruits and in service trainees) is currently being conducted at SL Forestry College in batches of 40 persons. Similarly, the Department of Wildlife has recruited about 50 field officers and they have been given training at HPNP Giritale Wildlife Training Center and in several other strategic locations (IUCN Consultation, 2017).

There are several awareness programs aired through national television network. The present day programs - Wild Asia and Sobadhara - are professionally done with advice from experts and experienced wildlife professionals. Annual Wildlife conferences held in 2015-2017 were also very successful and Wildlife Department personnel, University researchers and NGOs have all been actively participating in these annual events. The journals Wild Lanka published by the DWLC and Loris and Warana published by the Wildlife and Nature Protection Society of Sri Lanka are popular among wildlife enthusiasts and schoolchildren. A number of books on birds, butterflies, reptiles, lizards and amphibians of Sri Lanka have been published in recent times (see the reference list). Although these are not specific to the World Heritage properties, the information in them is still useful to the visitors. An authoritative book on Horton Plains NP was edited by Pethiyagoda in 2012.

There is a general lack of education programmes, information and awareness building throughout the visitor destinations of the site. Fees collected make some contribution to the management of the site (UNESCO Periodic Report, 2011). A number of educational programmes and activities have been developed recently (IUCN Consultation, 2017).
A nature-based tourism plan for the Knuckles Forest Reserve has been prepared under ESCAMP project and is being made available for implementation (Humke, 2018a and b). 
Two trekking guides, one for the Peak Wilderness Protected Area Complex and the other for the Knuckles Conservation Forest have been produced by the IUCN Sri Lanka Country Office in collaboration with Department of Wildlife Conservation (Perera et al., 2018a and b).
There is a concern regarding tourism related waste management, pollution and disturbance from vehicles, and an effective management and monitoring framework for tourism to address environmental impacts of the high number of visitors is still needed (UNESCO, 2012).

There is an adequate, comprehensive and integrated programme of monitoring, which addresses management needs and contributes to improving the understanding of the site’s OUV (UNESCO Periodic Report, 2011). Monitoring of tourism impacts is however lacking (UNESCO, 2012). Monitoring vegetation cover changes of Horton Plains National Park (HPNP) from 1998-2008 using a practical geo-informatics approach for adaptive management has been carried out. While the forest cover has increased, the grass cover has decreased (Abeysinghe et al. 2014). Vegetation cover changes in the grassland habitats of HPNP are being monitored parallel to the management interventions of invasive Gorse (Ulex europaeus) eradication programs and implications on other faunal and floral species are being currently studied. A decline in the Black lipped lizard population has been identified after the removal of Ulex europaeus (Jayasekara et al., 2020). 

There is an increasing trend in research directed towards management needs in ensuring the maintenance of the OUV in recent times. 
A robust estimate of the population density of Sri Lanka’s apex predator in Horton Plains National Park within the montane zone has been done (Kittle and Watson, 2018b). It provides valuable baseline information for the species and region and also contributes towards a more detailed understanding of the status of the Leopard in Sri Lanka, identified as a high priority species for conservation.
A comparative biodiversity survey in two fragmented forest patches in the Central Highlands reveal that they form an important component of Sri Lanka's natural heritage and continue to act as reservoirs for future biodiversity preservation through appropriate connectivity with larger protected areas such as Knuckles reserve (Kittle et al. 2016).
Factors influencing the occurrence using occupancy modeling  required for effective conservation of Montane Slender Loris (Loris tardigradus nycticeboides), which is an endangered and endemic primate species, has shown that most suitable habitats for Montane Slender Loris occupancy was montane forests situated in 1600-2100 m altitude with tall canopy (height >4m) and good canopy connectivity (canopy openings <25%). Only 3500 ha of such forest habitats are available at present, thus the Montane Slender Loris remains under considerable threat (Gamage et al., 2015).
Feeding ecology of Sri Lankan Leopard studied by prey base (scat) analysis has shown that there is a shift to suboptimal prey indicating scarcity of primary prey species. These studies provide valuable information on prey base diversity, dynamics and habitat quality. Therefore, knowledge on the feeding ecology of the Sri Lankan Leopard is helpful in planning protected areas and an overall strategy for the conservation of this endangered species (Sooriyabandara, 2015).
The ecotourism potential of the Horton Plains National Park (HPNP) has been carried out using a catalogue of criteria (Flagship attractions, Complementary and support attractions, Accessibility and regional infrastructure, climate and general political and social frameworks) and the values for biodiversity and landscape are comparatively high at HPNP (Rathnayake, 2014).