Greater Blue Mountains Area
Country
Australia
Inscribed in
2000
Criteria
(ix)
(x)
The conservation outlook for this site has been assessed as "significant concern" in the latest assessment cycle. Explore the Conservation Outlook Assessment for the site below. You have the option to access the summary, or the detailed assessment.
The Greater Blue Mountains Area consists of 1.03 million ha of sandstone plateaux, escarpments and gorges dominated by temperate eucalypt forest. The site, comprised of eight protected areas, is noted for its representation of the evolutionary adaptation and diversification of the eucalypts in post-Gondwana isolation on the Australian continent. Ninety-one eucalypt taxa occur within the Greater Blue Mountains Area which is also outstanding for its exceptional expression of the structural and ecological diversity of the eucalypts associated with its wide range of habitats. The site provides significant representation of Australia's biodiversity with ten percent of the vascular flora as well as significant numbers of rare or threatened species, including endemic and evolutionary relict species, such as the Wollemi pine, which have persisted in highly-restricted microsites. © UNESCO
Summary
2025 Conservation Outlook
Finalised on
11 Oct 2025
Significant concern
Current state and trend of VALUES
High Concern
Overall THREATS
Overall PROTECTION and MANAGEMENT
Full assessment
Description of values
A centre of diversification for the Australian scleromorphic flora
Criterion
(ix)
The Greater Blue Mountains Area includes outstanding and representative examples in a relatively small area of the evolution and adaptation of the genus Eucalyptus and eucalypt-dominated vegetation on the Australian continent. The site contains a wide and balanced representation of eucalypt habitats including wet and dry sclerophyll forests and mallee heathlands, as well as localised swamps, wetlands and grassland. It is a centre of diversification for the Australian scleromorphic flora, including significant aspects of eucalypt evolution and radiation. Representative examples of the dynamic processes in its eucalypt-dominated ecosystems cover the full range of interactions between eucalypts, understorey, fauna, environment and fire. The site includes primitive species of outstanding significance to the evolution of the earth’s plant life, such as the highly restricted Wollemi pine (Wollemia nobilis) and the Blue Mountains pine (Pherosphaera fitzgeraldii). These are examples of ancient, relict species with Gondwanan affinities that have survived past climatic changes and demonstrate the highly unusual juxtaposition of Gondwanan taxa with the diverse scleromorphic flora (World Heritage Committee, 2013).
An outstanding diversity of habitats and plant communities
Criterion
(x)
The site includes an outstanding diversity of habitats and plant communities that support its globally significant species and ecosystem diversity (152 plant families, 484 genera and c. 1,500 species). A significant proportion of the Australian continent’s biodiversity, especially its scleromorphic flora, occur in the area. Plant families represented by exceptionally high levels of species diversity here include Myrtaceae (150 species), Fabaceae (149 species), and Proteaeceae (77 species). Eucalypts (Eucalyptus, Angophora and Corymbia, all in the family Myrtaceae) which dominate the Australian continent are well represented by more than 101 species (13% of the global total) (IUCN consultation, 2024). The genus Acacia (in the family Fabaceae) is represented by 64 species. The site includes primitive and relictual species with Gondwanan affinities (Wollemia, Pherosphaera, Lomatia, Dracophyllum, Acrophyllum, Podocarpus and Atkinsonia) and supports many plants of conservation significance including 114 endemic species and 177 threatened species (World Heritage Committee, 2013).
At the time of its nomination for inclusion in the World Heritage List in 1998, the Greater Blue Mountains Area was known to support 90 species of eucalypt (species of the genera Eucalyptus, Angophora and Corymbia in the family Myrtaceae). At the time of listing in 2000, that number had risen to 91. An additional 4 eucalypt species have since been verified by the National Herbarium of NSW at the Botanic Gardens of Sydney bringing the total to 101 eucalypt species (IUCN consultation, 2024).
At the time of its nomination for inclusion in the World Heritage List in 1998, the Greater Blue Mountains Area was known to support 90 species of eucalypt (species of the genera Eucalyptus, Angophora and Corymbia in the family Myrtaceae). At the time of listing in 2000, that number had risen to 91. An additional 4 eucalypt species have since been verified by the National Herbarium of NSW at the Botanic Gardens of Sydney bringing the total to 101 eucalypt species (IUCN consultation, 2024).
Threatened animal species
Criterion
(x)
The diverse plant communities and habitats support more than 400 vertebrate taxa (of which 40 are threatened), comprising some 52 mammal, 63 reptile, over 30 frog and about one third (265 species) of Australia’s bird species. Charismatic vertebrates such as the platypus and echidna occur in the area. Although invertebrates are still poorly known, the area supports an estimated 120 butterfly and 4,000 moth species, and a rich cave invertebrate fauna (67 taxa) (World Heritage Committee, 2013).
Endangered Temperate Highland Peat Swamps on Sandstone
The World Heritage site includes endangered Temperate Highland Peat Swamps on Sandstone (THPSS), which are largely unique to the Blue Mountains. Their key values include floristic diversity, water retention in the upper landscape, habitat for two endangered fauna species and provision of base flow to downstream catchments (Cowley et al., 2019).
The Upland Basalt Eucalypt Forests of the Sydney Basin Bioregion
The Upland Basalt Eucalypt Forests of the Sydney Basin Bioregion is typically tall open eucalypt forest found on basalt and basalt-like substrates in, or adjacent to, the World Heritage property (Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities, 2011).
Assessment information
The Greater Blue Mountains Area World Heritage property is large enough to confer a level of ecological resilience but has a long and convoluted boundary, bringing edge effects into play. The proximity of urban development, major transport corridors, other roads, agriculture and mining to important natural features brings a variety of threats to the property that include polluted run-off, illegal recreational and small-scale extractive activities, spread of weeds and pathogens, increased evidence of feral deer, mining impacts on water resources, biosecurity risks (including from the Western Sydney International (Nancy-Bird Walton) Airport under construction), and the advent of wild fire from adjacent lands or from arson. If pathogens such as myrtle rust gain a foothold within the property, large tracts of native vegetation that forms a critical part of the property’s OUV could become severely degraded, with the potential elimination of some species. The major threat to the property comes from huge, uncontrolled bushfires burning in the hottest months of the year, sometimes under conditions officially designated ‘catastrophic’. According to detailed analysis by land managers, the 2019/20 fires burnt over 70% of the property, with 29% having burnt at ‘high to extreme’ intensity. Even damp and sheltered rainforest gullies, usually protected from fire, burnt. The threat to iconic species such as the Wollemi pine is obvious; many other ecosystems also face an uncertain future. Given the trajectory of climate change, with forecasts of increasing temperatures, drought, extreme weather and intensifying fires, it is very unlikely that the 2019/20 fires were a one-off event. The Australian and NSW governments are aware of this threat and have worked to better understand the impacts of the 2019/20 fires, to enhance fire-fighting responses and to carry out preventative measures where possible.
Fire & Fire Management
(Extreme and very large fires resulting from alteration of natural fire regimes by climate change)
Inside site
, Throughout(>50%)
Outside site
The terrain, vegetation and climate of the Greater Blue Mountains region make it one of the most fire-prone regions in the world (NSW NPWS, 2024). Fire is a natural feature of many environments and is essential to the survival of many several native species and plant communities, including many plant varieties recognised by the World Heritage listing. However, fire can also be a threat to OUV; inappropriate fire regimes can be a particular threat to ecosystems, plants and animals (NSW NPWS, 2024). The extreme fires in the GBMA and across south-eastern Australia over several months from late October 2019 to early February 2020 reflect changes to the climate that have affected fire regimes, leading to increasing dry fuel loads in the natural environment. Initial estimates were that up to 82% of the site had been affected by fires that burned at varying intensities (State Party of Australia, 2020). A revised figure of 71% (739,906 ha) was subsequently confirmed (State Party of Australia, 2024), with ‘an unprecedented 29% of the World Heritage Area burnt at high to extreme intensity’ (Smith and Smith, 2022). Many species that are attributes of the Outstanding Universal Value of the site were impacted by the fires (State Party of Australia, 2020 and 2022; Australian Government, 2022). These bushfires were unprecedented in their extent and intensity and had a considerable impact on habitats and populations of animal species, including many threatened species; in the future, many species and ecosystems may be exposed to conditions beyond those they are adapted to; increasing temperatures and other influences on hydrological processes and fire regimes will place additional pressure on animals and their habitats, changing the size of species’ populations and their distributions; weeds and feral animal species may also be advantaged by climate change (NSW NPWS, 2024). The fires were followed in February 2020 by torrential rain which also significantly impacted the property, with flash flooding causing large-scale displacement of sediment, debris and ash, with erosion of watercourses and unsealed roads across the property. The State Party of Australia says the full ‘extent of impacts from the fires has been varied across the property and will not be known for years to come’ (State Party of Australia, 2024). Rainforest and other wet forests in sheltered gullies have played an important role as unburnt fauna refuges in the past, but were unusually heavily impacted in 2019-20, with 82% and 79% burnt, respectively; the fauna and flora of the World Heritage area are likely to eventually recover from these fires if this had been an exceptional event that will not recur for many decades, but the predicted change in the Australian fire regimes to more frequent, more extensive, more severe wildfires would be catastrophic (Smith and Smith, 2022).
Recovery from the ‘devastating’ impacts of mega-fires of World Heritage places such as the Greater Blue Mountains Area will require targeted efforts and resources to reduce the likelihood of future megafires, and respond to other catastrophic environmental events (Ward et al, 2022). The governments of NSW and Australia have undertaken a number of initiatives and inquiries to enhance responses to bushfires and to help ameliorate their impacts (IUCN Consultation, 2024).
Recovery from the ‘devastating’ impacts of mega-fires of World Heritage places such as the Greater Blue Mountains Area will require targeted efforts and resources to reduce the likelihood of future megafires, and respond to other catastrophic environmental events (Ward et al, 2022). The governments of NSW and Australia have undertaken a number of initiatives and inquiries to enhance responses to bushfires and to help ameliorate their impacts (IUCN Consultation, 2024).
Water-borne & other effluent Pollution
(Discharge of polluted water from collieries into rivers)
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Outside site
The Wollangambe, Wolgan and Colo Rivers are affected by polluted water from collieries. The Colo (and major tributaries that include the Wolgan and Wollangambe, see DECCW, 2008) is a dedicated Wild River (Benson et al., 2012; Hansen, 2010). In July 2015, a wastewater dam collapsed, sending a slurry of coal waste into the Wollangambe River, resulting in pollution within the World Heritage property (Brown, 2017). The mining company was prosecuted, fined AUD $1 million, and required to pay the cost of clean-up works (Macmillan, 2017). The State Party investigated the incident and remediation works, concluding that there would be no long-term impacts on the OUV of the site (State Party Report, 2019; UNESCO, 2019). More recent research (Wright et al., 2017) reports that pollution from the mine extends at least 22 km downstream in the Wollangambe from the outflow of coal-mine wastes, is causing major impairment of the aquatic ecosystem, with reduced taxonomic richness and loss of pollution-sensitive macroinvertebrate groups. Water pollution from the mine includes thermal pollution, increased salinity, and increased concentrations of a wide range of heavy metals that appear to have been mobilised into riparian vegetation (Wright et al. 2017; Belmer and Wright, 2018). Further assessment of the implications of heavy metal mobilisation to the terrestrial environment from waterways is recommended because if heavy-metal contaminants are leaving the water column of their receiving waterways and mobilising to the terrestrial environment, serious long-term impacts may persist (Belmer and Wright, 2018). There has also been ongoing heavy-metal pollution (zinc and nickel) from Canyon Colliery that flows into the Grose River in the WHA (see Wright, 2020). The State Party says that, in collaboration with the state of NSW, upgraded guidelines for assessing the impacts of mining proposals adjacent to the World Heritage property have been developed (State Party of Australia, 2024).
Oil & Gas exploration/development , Mining & Quarrying
(Subsidence and dropping of water levels)
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
Outside site
Subsidence from long wall coal mining close to the boundary of the GBMA World Heritage property threatens cliff collapse, water pollution, lowering of water tables, desiccation of peat swamps and the loss of surface water (Independent Expert Panel for Mining in the Catchment, 2019; Washington et al, 2011). The Temperate Highland Peat Swamps on Sandstone (THPSS) are a Threatened Ecological Community (TEC) (New South Wales Scientific Committee 2007; New South Wales Government Office of the Environment and Heritage, 2014; Commonwealth of Australia, 2014) and their water retention and ecological function (including providing base flow to downstream catchments) are impacted by mining, which adds to the impacts from climate change and extreme fire (Cowley et al. 2019). In the THPSS swamps, studies by Cowley et al. (2019) indicate that 70% of the water in four of five swamps came from the surrounding bedrock aquifer, indicating the inter-connectedness of the property’s hydrological resources. The high floristic diversity of the swamps has been previously underestimated (Tierney et al. 2018). The threats are greatest in the Gardens of Stone area on the Newnes Plateau (containing many species and ecosystems listed as threatened upland swamps) (Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities, 2013; Goldrey et al., 2010). The 2020 Centennial Angus Place Extension Report (ERM, 2020) notes that ‘development of fractures within the sandstone bedrock underlying watercourses across the Study Area caused by mining subsidence could significantly increase local hydraulic conductivity. This can significantly reduce, or in some cases effectively eliminate baseflow. This loss of flow can lead to the progressive drying of downstream swamps which can result in a range of impacts including loss of wetland plant species, drying and desiccation of the swamp peat, increased potential for incision, and erosion of the swamp surface during high flow events’.
Invasive Non-Native/ Alien Species
(Spread of invasive animals and plants)
Invasive/problematic species
Cytisus scoparius
Rubus fruticosus
Erica lusitanica
Nassella neesiana
Crocosmia x crocosmiiflora
Agapanthus africanus
Lonicera japonica
Leycesteria formosa
Acer negundo
Pinus radiata
Prunus laurocerasus
Lantana camara
Ulex europaeus
Other invasive species names
European red fox (Vulpes vulpes), feral cat (Felis catus), Pampas grass (Cortaderia spp.), Ivies (Hedera spp.), Privet (Ligustrum spp.), Cotoneaster spp.
Inside site
, Throughout(>50%)
Outside site
Control measures for invasive species are outlined in national-park management plans, which are implemented in cooperation with neighbours of the parks. Invasive fauna include foxes, cats, carp, deer, dogs, goats, horses, pigs, rabbits and cattle. The greatest threat stems from introduced predators (foxes and cats) (Pascoe, 2011; Pascoe et al., 2011). Fire-affected landscapes leave native animals more exposed to predation by feral cats, dogs and foxes, with native animals also having to compete for scarce food with feral deer, pigs and goats. The NSW Government continues to fund feral-animal control within the property, including aerial and ground shooting and baiting to control vertebrate pests. Programs are prioritised to protect the properties’ values, including threatened species, ecological communities, water quality, visitor safety and cultural heritage (IUCN Consultation, 2024). Targeted post-fire weed control to support the recovery of native flora was planned and implemented following the 2019/20 mega-fires (IUCN Consultation, 2020c).
Increasing urbanisation on the borders of the Greater Blue Mountains Area, increasing visitation, and a lack of consistent, adequate weed control, is leading to an increase in the prevalence of invasive plant species found within the area. These invasive plants species are tolerant of a very wide range of climatic conditions, and are able to rapidly infest natural ecosystems, smothering and disrupting natural ecosystem processes (Greater Sydney Local Land Services, 2022). These species can occur in rainforest, wet sclerophyll, cliff edge and seepage, hanging swamp, upland swamp, and dry sclerophyll habitats. These plant species are highly fecund and following manual or chemical control and/or removal, can represent an ongoing threat to natural ecosystem processes by having rapidly accumulated large, persistent seed banks (Greater Sydney Local Land Services, 2022). Seeds and fruit of these species are highly mobile, dispersing variously via birds, wind, waterways, off-road vehicles, or people, and the spread of these weed species into the protected areas of the Great Blue Mountains Area has been enhanced by several years of wet, mild weather.
Increasing urbanisation on the borders of the Greater Blue Mountains Area, increasing visitation, and a lack of consistent, adequate weed control, is leading to an increase in the prevalence of invasive plant species found within the area. These invasive plants species are tolerant of a very wide range of climatic conditions, and are able to rapidly infest natural ecosystems, smothering and disrupting natural ecosystem processes (Greater Sydney Local Land Services, 2022). These species can occur in rainforest, wet sclerophyll, cliff edge and seepage, hanging swamp, upland swamp, and dry sclerophyll habitats. These plant species are highly fecund and following manual or chemical control and/or removal, can represent an ongoing threat to natural ecosystem processes by having rapidly accumulated large, persistent seed banks (Greater Sydney Local Land Services, 2022). Seeds and fruit of these species are highly mobile, dispersing variously via birds, wind, waterways, off-road vehicles, or people, and the spread of these weed species into the protected areas of the Great Blue Mountains Area has been enhanced by several years of wet, mild weather.
Recreation & Tourism Areas
(Tourism and visitor management)
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Outside site
The parks of the Greater Blue Mountains Area World Heritage property are under growing pressure from increasing visitation and inappropriate visitor behaviour, which can adversely impact park values (NSW NPWS, 2024). Visitation is managed to minimise impact while supporting the visitor experience and appreciation of values. Tourism development due to increasing visitor pressure and infrastructure are discussed in the GBMA strategic plan.
Residential Areas, Commercial & Industrial Areas, Recreation & Tourism Areas
(Urban run-off impacting threatened upland peat swamps)
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Outside site
Temperate highland peat swamps on sandstone (THPSS) are unique state and federally protected ecological communities (New South Wales Scientific Committee, 2007; Hensen, 2010; New South Wales Government Office of the Environment and Heritage, 2014; Commonwealth of Australia, 2014). These habitats function as carbon sinks; they provide refuge for unique, often endemically isolated biodiversity; and they safeguard water quality (Keith et al., 2014). Urban runoff within THPSS catchments is affecting the condition of their aquatic ecosystems (Belmer et al., 2018), though the implications for biodiversity are not well understood (Carroll et al, 2022). At the scale of the World Heritage property, this threat is very localised.
Pathogens
(Emergence of pathogens in vulnerable ecosystems)
Other invasive species names
Phytophthora cinnamoni, Myrtle Rust (Austropuccinia psidii), Chytridiomycosis, Chlamydia
Inside site
, Widespread(15-50%)
Outside site
The property’s flora is susceptible to several pathogens, some of which have been in the environment for decades and others which are new, bringing a heightened threat of mortality of key species of plants. The root rot pathogen, Phythophthora cinnamomic, causes vegetation dieback and may become more widespread due to climate change. It is spread by human activities (including on boots, bikes and vehicles) and moves from ridge tops down slopes and water courses (Blue Mountains World Heritage Institute, 2012; National Parks and Wildlife Service, 2012; Newby, 2014). A general survey of Wollemi National Park for Phytopthora cinnamomi found the pathogen was present in samples collected over extensive areas (Daniel et al., 2006; DEC, 2006). Within the World Heritage property, the disease results in loss of susceptible species, thereby altering the makeup of the ecosystem. Myrtle rust is a disease caused by the exotic fungus Austropuccinia psidii which threatens trees and shrubs in the Myrtaceae family, the largest plant family in Australia which includes tea tree (Melaleuca spp.) and eucalypts (Eucalyptus spp.). Although currently not causing significant impact, myrtle rust could become a threat to key attributes within the property in the future.
Notably, only one strain of myrtle rust has arrived in Australia to date, though other continents harbour multiple strains. A strain that occurs in South America is more damaging to Eucalyptus species in South America than the myrtle rust strain present in Australia (Invasive Species Council, 2017). If it arrives to Australia, this South American strain posses even greater risk to Greater Blue Mountains flora values. Biosecurity measures are in place to ensure other strains of myrtle rust do not enter Australia in the future (Australian Government 2024).
Degradation of habitat compromises the health of fauna, and the recent bushfires and extreme weather patterns have increased the risk of diseases in wildlife populations (Bender et al., 2018). A number of diseases have been recorded in several fauna species in the World Heritage property. Chlamydia has been confirmed in Eastern Rosella and King Parrots from multiple submissions from the Blue Mountains area (Australian Registry of Wildlife Health). Other diseases present include chytridiomycosis in frogs (Scheele et al., 2019; NSW Threatened Species Scientific Committee).
Notably, only one strain of myrtle rust has arrived in Australia to date, though other continents harbour multiple strains. A strain that occurs in South America is more damaging to Eucalyptus species in South America than the myrtle rust strain present in Australia (Invasive Species Council, 2017). If it arrives to Australia, this South American strain posses even greater risk to Greater Blue Mountains flora values. Biosecurity measures are in place to ensure other strains of myrtle rust do not enter Australia in the future (Australian Government 2024).
Degradation of habitat compromises the health of fauna, and the recent bushfires and extreme weather patterns have increased the risk of diseases in wildlife populations (Bender et al., 2018). A number of diseases have been recorded in several fauna species in the World Heritage property. Chlamydia has been confirmed in Eastern Rosella and King Parrots from multiple submissions from the Blue Mountains area (Australian Registry of Wildlife Health). Other diseases present include chytridiomycosis in frogs (Scheele et al., 2019; NSW Threatened Species Scientific Committee).
Recreational Activities, Other Human Disturbances
(Illegal human activities)
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
Illegal hunting has occurred in parts of the property. In some cases, hunters have released pigs and deer into the property for illegal hunting. Hunting dogs have escaped and preyed on native fauna. Other damaging illegal activities include removal of bush rock and firewood; illegal vehicle access; illegal camping; rubbish dumping; vandalism; arson; and graffiti (IUCN Consultation, 2024). The World Heritage property's long and convoluted boundary makes it difficult to manage illegal activities, which can also contribute to the spread of pathogens.
Changes in Temperature Regimes, Changes in Precipitation & Hydrological Regime
(Climate change)
Inside site
, Throughout(>50%)
Outside site
Habitat die-off and uncontrollable wildfire is predicted to continue, in response to climate change and associated drought and extreme weather (Blue Mountains World Heritage Institute, 2006; IUCN Consultation, 2017). Torrential storms and flooding over the last 5 years has had a significant impact on infrastructure of the GBMA. There is concern that climate change could result in increased incidences of flora and fauna disease outbreaks including zoonoses (Bender et al., 2018). Climate change is already impacting on Threatened Highland Peat Swamps on Sandstone (THPSS) placing them under greater stress (Hensen, 2010). Climate change and associated drought and fire may impact on rainforest and wet sclerophyll communities also (Hammill and Tasker, 2010). Canopy dieback has been observed in the Greater Blue Mountains Area in 2019 (IUCN Consultation, 2020b). There is a need for a climate change adaptation plan for the property. The projected impacts of climate change are being assessed and identified (State Party of Australia, 2021).
Potential threats arise from developments on lands adjacent to the property and include mining (impacting groundwater and ecosystems), and airport development (impacting aesthetic values of the GBMA). The proposal to raise the height of the Warragamba Dam, identified in the previous report, has been withdrawn.
Dams & Water Management/Use
(Raising of Warragamba Dam causing periodic inundation and siltation)
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
On 23 May 2023, Australia notified UNESCO that the proposal to raise the Warragamba Dam wall had been withdrawn and that there were no further plans to raise the dam wall.
A proposal to undertake activities within the existing footprint of the Warragamba Dam to allow the implementation of environmental flows has been referred under the EPBC Act (Australia’s environmental law) as EPBC 2024/09921. In accordance with paragraph 172 of the Operational Guidelines, the Australian Government will advise the World Heritage Centre if the proposed action is likely to have a significant impact on the OUV of the property (State Party of Australia, 2024).
A proposal to undertake activities within the existing footprint of the Warragamba Dam to allow the implementation of environmental flows has been referred under the EPBC Act (Australia’s environmental law) as EPBC 2024/09921. In accordance with paragraph 172 of the Operational Guidelines, the Australian Government will advise the World Heritage Centre if the proposed action is likely to have a significant impact on the OUV of the property (State Party of Australia, 2024).
Residential Areas
(Urban spread)
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Outside site
Developments in the urban corridor adjacent to the GBMA World Heritage property, extending impervious surfaces and therefore stormwater run-off, and adding to pollution of waterways remains a threat. Any extension of urban areas immediately adjacent to the property can complicate fire management. In July 2024, Blue Mountains, Wollondilly and Hawkesbury councils , three of the 12 local government areas across the GBMA, were exempted from NSW Government planning reforms to increase building heights and densities.
Oil & Gas exploration/development , Mining & Quarrying
(Coal mining adjacent to the site)
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
Outside site
The State Party of Australia report (2019) provided an update to the World Heritage Committee on the status of mining operations beside the GBMA World Heritage property. In response, the Committee requested the State Party to undertake an assessment of potential cumulative impacts of all existing and planned mining projects in the vicinity of the property through a Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) or a similar mechanism (UNESCO, 2019). The State Party commissioned the CSIRO (Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation) to conduct a regional-scale assessment (Holland et al, 2021). The former Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment calculated the potential cumulative impact area (PCIA) of 1,984 square kilometres within the 10,438-square-kilometre GBMA where cumulative impacts from mining could occur in the absence of protection and management measures (DAWE, 2022). The DAWE report suggested the greatest mining-associated risk to the OUV is potentially to the ‘water systems’ of the GBMA via water-table lowering and changes in streamflow, water quality and channel condition. The report concluded that the risk to critical components of OUV was ‘low’ at the overall scale of the World Heritage property while acknowledging that local risks could be significantly greater (DAWE, 2022). An IUCN Technical Review of the CSIRO report (unpublished) identified ongoing monitoring and further research to improve the assessment (IUCN Consultation, 2024). In February 2022, the Bylong Coal Project on the north-western boundary of the GBMA was refused developmental approval due to likely environmental impacts (IPC, 2019).
There is significant community concern about extended coal mining and associated impacts on water resources (Gardens of Stone, 2025). Potential impacts will be assessed under both state and federal legislation to ensure there are no significant impacts on the OUV such as cliff collapse, water pollution, lowering of water tables, desiccation of listed endangered swamps and loss of surface water and stream flow to two major tributaries of the Colo River (a designated wild river), and likely to affect aquatic communities in the World Heritage property (Gardens of Stone, 2025).
There is significant community concern about extended coal mining and associated impacts on water resources (Gardens of Stone, 2025). Potential impacts will be assessed under both state and federal legislation to ensure there are no significant impacts on the OUV such as cliff collapse, water pollution, lowering of water tables, desiccation of listed endangered swamps and loss of surface water and stream flow to two major tributaries of the Colo River (a designated wild river), and likely to affect aquatic communities in the World Heritage property (Gardens of Stone, 2025).
Atmospheric & Space Activities
(Western Sydney Airport)
Outside site
The Australian Government has decided to proceed with construction of the Western Sydney Airport, to be located about eight kilometres east of the Greater Blue Mountains Area (Australian Government, 2025). The Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) for the project concluded that construction of the proposed airport was unlikely to have a significant impact on the listed values of the Greater Blue Mountains Area, but that there may be some noise impacts on amenity within the GBMA (Australian Government, 2016; UNESCO, 2021).
During public exhibition of the EIS in October 2023, the Greater Blue Mountains Area World Heritage Advisory Committee provided a submission expressing concern that the proposed flight paths have the potential to cause lasting, highly detrimental impact to the OUV of the GBMA and cause significant risk to biodiversity, people’s experience of wilderness, heritage values and landscape and visual amenity, and that these potential impacts were not adequately assessed in the draft EIS (Benson, 2024). Specific potential threats raised in the submission included biosecurity risks (such as from imported red fire ants), impacts of noise on birds, bats and frogs, the impact of light pollution on fauna (it should be remembered that construction of Australia’s then new Parliament House in the late 1980s proved disastrous for the Bogong moth, which was attracted by the huge building’s lights), and the absence of adequate baseline data against which to assess impacts (Benson, 2024).
During public exhibition of the EIS in October 2023, the Greater Blue Mountains Area World Heritage Advisory Committee provided a submission expressing concern that the proposed flight paths have the potential to cause lasting, highly detrimental impact to the OUV of the GBMA and cause significant risk to biodiversity, people’s experience of wilderness, heritage values and landscape and visual amenity, and that these potential impacts were not adequately assessed in the draft EIS (Benson, 2024). Specific potential threats raised in the submission included biosecurity risks (such as from imported red fire ants), impacts of noise on birds, bats and frogs, the impact of light pollution on fauna (it should be remembered that construction of Australia’s then new Parliament House in the late 1980s proved disastrous for the Bogong moth, which was attracted by the huge building’s lights), and the absence of adequate baseline data against which to assess impacts (Benson, 2024).
Involvement of stakeholders and rightsholders, including indigenous peoples and local communities, in decision-making processes
The nomination of the World Heritage area in 1998 was strongly supported by local communities, including the Blue Mountains City Council (BMCC). The GBMA World Heritage Advisory Committee includes local representatives, scientists, Aboriginal Traditional Custodians and other specialists whose ‘crucial role’ in the conservation of the World Heritage property includes ‘providing scientific advice and facilitating constructive relationships’ between the National Parks and Wildlife Service (NPWS), other engaged bodies and the community (NSW Government, 2016).
The NPWS Blue Mountains Branch Regional Advisory Committee provides advice to NPWS regarding national parks in the region. The locally-based Blue Mountains World Heritage Institute was formed in 2004, and partners with NPWS and BMCC to provide technical and scientific expertise. Working together, the Institute, BMCC and Blue Mountains Branch of NPWS collated and published a Research Prospectus (Blue Mountains World Heritage Institute, 2024) that highlights GBMA management knowledge and research gaps. The Prospectus is to be used to determine what research needs to be conducted to further improve GBMA management.
A Strategic Plan (NPWS, New South Wales, 2009) was developed to help coordinate management of the eight protected areas which make up the GBMA. Following a review, amendments to the plan were published in 2016 (NSW Government, 2016). The NPWS says that it works with the local community to foster appreciation and understanding of their roles as neighbours of the World Heritage property (IUCN Consultation, 2024). The Darkinjung Dharug, Dharawal Gundungurra, Wiradjuri and Wonarua language groups are acknowledged as the Traditional Custodians of the GBMA. Aboriginal people from these language groups, through ongoing practices that reflect both traditional and contemporary presence, continue to have a custodial relationship with the area. The Gundungurra Indigenous Land Use Agreement, which covers some of the World Heritage site, outlines responsibilities for land managers to protect culturally significant sites and places, and to work together with the Gundungurra community to identify and monitor the condition of those sites (IUCN Consultation, 2020c; NSW NPWS, 2024).
The NPWS Blue Mountains Branch Regional Advisory Committee provides advice to NPWS regarding national parks in the region. The locally-based Blue Mountains World Heritage Institute was formed in 2004, and partners with NPWS and BMCC to provide technical and scientific expertise. Working together, the Institute, BMCC and Blue Mountains Branch of NPWS collated and published a Research Prospectus (Blue Mountains World Heritage Institute, 2024) that highlights GBMA management knowledge and research gaps. The Prospectus is to be used to determine what research needs to be conducted to further improve GBMA management.
A Strategic Plan (NPWS, New South Wales, 2009) was developed to help coordinate management of the eight protected areas which make up the GBMA. Following a review, amendments to the plan were published in 2016 (NSW Government, 2016). The NPWS says that it works with the local community to foster appreciation and understanding of their roles as neighbours of the World Heritage property (IUCN Consultation, 2024). The Darkinjung Dharug, Dharawal Gundungurra, Wiradjuri and Wonarua language groups are acknowledged as the Traditional Custodians of the GBMA. Aboriginal people from these language groups, through ongoing practices that reflect both traditional and contemporary presence, continue to have a custodial relationship with the area. The Gundungurra Indigenous Land Use Agreement, which covers some of the World Heritage site, outlines responsibilities for land managers to protect culturally significant sites and places, and to work together with the Gundungurra community to identify and monitor the condition of those sites (IUCN Consultation, 2020c; NSW NPWS, 2024).
Legal framework
The legal framework pertaining to World Heritage properties in Australia is set out by the Australian Government (State Party of Australia, 2024) and presents management objectives. These are enabled through the Environment Protection Biodiversity Conservation Act (EPBC) 1999, which has a section devoted to protecting Australia's World Heritage properties. Any new development proposals within or adjacent to the World Heritage site require assessment under the EPBC Act to identify if they are likely to have significant impacts on World Heritage values and other protected matters, such as threatened species. If there are likely to be significant impacts, approval by the Australian Government is required. The national parks and other reserves that comprise the Greater Blue Mountains Area World Heritage property are managed by the National Parks and Wildlife Service of the government of New South Wales (NSW) in accordance with the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974 and the Wilderness Act 1987. Each park has its own management plan (see ‘management plan and overall management system’ below). Significant parts of the Blue Mountains and Kanangra-Boyd national parks form part of Sydney’s water catchment so are also managed in accordance with the Water NSW Act 2014 (they include approximately 141,700 ha of ‘special areas’ that are subject to particular rules whose objective is the protection of water quality).
Governance arrangements
The Australian World Heritage Management Principles are legislated under the Australian Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (EPBC) Act and apply to the management of all Australian World Heritage properties. The Australian World Heritage Intergovernmental Agreement outlines agreements between Australia’s national government and the state governments regarding World Heritage matters, including management of properties.
The Australian World Heritage Advisory Committee (AWHAC), which includes representatives from each Australian World Heritage property, helps provide a national overview regarding the property’s management.
Management on the ground is carried out by the National Parks and Wildlife Service (NPWS) of the government of New South Wales (NSW) in accordance with the legislation (State Party of Australia, 2024). Each reserve has its own management plan prepared by NPWS with input from the community. Parts of the property (see legal framework) form part of Sydney’s water catchment so are managed in collaboration with WaterNSW, a state-government instrumentality (NSW NPWS, 2024).
A Greater Blue Mountains Area World Heritage Advisory Committee representing sectors of the community provides advice to NPWS and State and Federal environment ministers. The NPWS also supports a Blue Mountains Branch Regional Advisory Committee, appointed under the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974, with community members highly valued for their independent advice on policies and plans, activities and proposed activities, draft plans of management, and their community advocacy roles in helping to achieve the objectives of that Act (NSW NPWS, 2025d).
The Australian World Heritage Advisory Committee (AWHAC), which includes representatives from each Australian World Heritage property, helps provide a national overview regarding the property’s management.
Management on the ground is carried out by the National Parks and Wildlife Service (NPWS) of the government of New South Wales (NSW) in accordance with the legislation (State Party of Australia, 2024). Each reserve has its own management plan prepared by NPWS with input from the community. Parts of the property (see legal framework) form part of Sydney’s water catchment so are managed in collaboration with WaterNSW, a state-government instrumentality (NSW NPWS, 2024).
A Greater Blue Mountains Area World Heritage Advisory Committee representing sectors of the community provides advice to NPWS and State and Federal environment ministers. The NPWS also supports a Blue Mountains Branch Regional Advisory Committee, appointed under the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974, with community members highly valued for their independent advice on policies and plans, activities and proposed activities, draft plans of management, and their community advocacy roles in helping to achieve the objectives of that Act (NSW NPWS, 2025d).
Integration into local, regional and national planning systems (including sea/landscape connectivity)
The management and use of the property are subject to a range of national and state-level laws (NSW NPWS, 2024). The Australian World Heritage Intergovernmental Agreement provides protocols that apply between Australia’s national government and the state governments regarding World Heritage matters, including management of properties. At the state level, the NSW NPWS delivers management policies and activities through operational plans in partnership with the community and other stakeholders; they include a range of programs such as threatened-species recovery plans, reserve-specific management plans, and plans for managing fire, pests and visitors (NSW NPWS, 2024). The Strategic Plan for the Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area, 2009, currently under review (NPWS NSW, 2009; NSW Government, 2016; State Party of Australia, 2024) provides for the integration of management.
The Australian World Heritage Advisory Committee, which includes representatives from each Australian World Heritage property, provides a national overview regarding the management of Australia’s World Heritage properties including indigenous perspectives with terms of reference in the Australian World Heritage Intergovernmental Agreement (NSW NPWS, 2009). The Gundungurra Indigenous Land Use Agreement of 2014 provides objectives and protocols for communication and management, including sites of significance to the area’s Traditional Owners (NSW Government, 2016). Many decisions that affect the World Heritage property are made at the local-government level by the councils that govern the towns that, in many places, immediately adjoin the national parks.
The Australian World Heritage Advisory Committee, which includes representatives from each Australian World Heritage property, provides a national overview regarding the management of Australia’s World Heritage properties including indigenous perspectives with terms of reference in the Australian World Heritage Intergovernmental Agreement (NSW NPWS, 2009). The Gundungurra Indigenous Land Use Agreement of 2014 provides objectives and protocols for communication and management, including sites of significance to the area’s Traditional Owners (NSW Government, 2016). Many decisions that affect the World Heritage property are made at the local-government level by the councils that govern the towns that, in many places, immediately adjoin the national parks.
Boundaries
The boundary of the GBMA is long and convoluted and includes some major enclaves. Boundary anomalies affecting integrity were noted in the Statement of Outstanding Universal Value (World Heritage Committee, 2013). The property does not have a formal Buffer Zone, increasing its vulnerability to edge effects. Since World Heritage listing, over 41,000 hectares of adjacent lands and inholdings have been added to the reserves of the GBMA through changes in land tenure and management responsibility of some public lands, and through the purchase of strategically located private lands. The area of gazetted wilderness has increased from over 500,000 hectares at the time of listing to 683,786 hectares. The New South Wales (NSW) Government has converted about 16,000 hectares of four areas of State Forest adjacent to the Greater Blue Mountains Area to flora reserves, which enhances the integrity of adjacent parts of the World Heritage property. The GBMA Advisory Committee has recommended modification of the World Heritage boundaries to include the additions to the reserves made since 2000 (over 38,500 hectares). The GBMA Advisory Committee also recommended an extension to incorporate over 230,000 hectares of significant natural areas adjacent to the GBMA (Benson et al., 2012; Benson and Smith, 2015). In 2022, 28,322 hectares in the Gardens of Stone precinct became conservation area, enhancing the integrity of the property (State Party of Australia, 2024).
Overlapping international designations
N/A
Implementation of World Heritage Committee decisions and recommendations
The State Party of Australia has submitted reports in a timely manner in response to requests made in decisions by the World Heritage Committee. In recent times, these include the responses to decisions 43 COM 7B.2, 44 COM 7B.180 and 45 COM 7B.80 through state-of-conservation reports. The Committee has frequently welcomed responses of the State Party, particularly regarding provision of information regarding the impacts of the 2019/20 bushfires and the withdrawal of the contentious proposal to raise the height of the Warragamba dam wall. The requests of the Committee in decisions 44 COM 7B.180 and 45 COM 7B.80 to develop an understanding of projected changes resulting from climate change in relation to the property’s OUV and to strengthen climate and disaster resilience and other matters have resulted in work by the State Party and the land manager that is continuing.
Climate action
The managers of the Greater Blue Mountains Area World Heritage property are responding to climate change every day through their fire-management strategies and, in particular, through their fire-fighting operations. Aerial baiting and increased aerial pest vertebrate control following the 2019-20 bushfires has been a major initiative that is helping native mammals recover and be resilient in the face of climate change. However, the government documents applying to management and strategic planning for the property do not integrate climate change as a large-scale, permanent phenomenon requiring a strategic approach. The potential approval by state and national governments of new coal-mining operations around the periphery of the World Heritage property is not an example of positive action to help address the global climate crisis, however remains beyond the control of the site management.
Under the Threatened Species Action Plan 2022-2032 (DCCEEW, 2022), targeted habitat restoration will be taking place focussing on increasing native cover and species diversity. This includes weed control and fire management. Actions will focus on the edges of the World Heritage property and adjoining urban areas. This will improve habitat connectivity and reduce incursion of weeds and invasive species. Action will complement existing programs to help maintain condition (DCCEEW, 2024).
Under the Threatened Species Action Plan 2022-2032 (DCCEEW, 2022), targeted habitat restoration will be taking place focussing on increasing native cover and species diversity. This includes weed control and fire management. Actions will focus on the edges of the World Heritage property and adjoining urban areas. This will improve habitat connectivity and reduce incursion of weeds and invasive species. Action will complement existing programs to help maintain condition (DCCEEW, 2024).
Management plan and overall management system
The Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area Strategic Plan (National Parks and Wildlife Service, New South Wales, 2009; NSW Government, 2016) directs the coordination of planning and management of an area of 1,032,649 hectares in eight protected areas. It is an exercise in cooperation between the governments of New South Wales and Australia. The World Heritage property consists of seven contiguous national parks and a karst conservation reserve (World Heritage Committee, 2013), each of which has its own management plan: the Blue Mountains National Park and Kanangra-Boyd National Park Plan of Management was adopted in July 2024; Wollemi National Park Plan of Management, 2001; Nattai National Park Plan of Management, 2001; Gardens of Stone National Park Plan of Management, 2009; Thirlmere Lakes National Park Plan of Management, 2019; Yengo National Park Plan of Management, 2009; Nattai Reserves management plan, 2001; and Jenolan Karst Conservation Reserve Plan of Management, 2019. Five of these management plans are more than 15 years old. It is not clear when they will be reviewed an updated. Nevertheless, the management system is largely effective with significant community participation in management. Additional resources are required to address the accelerating threats from climate change and invasive species. The national Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999, the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974, the NSW Wilderness Act 1987 and the GBMA Strategic Plan are the main planning tools but the very high boundary-to-area ratio exposes the property to a great many external influences. (NSW NPWS, 2009; NSW Government, 2016; individual management plans).
Law enforcement
Law enforcement is carried out by the New South Wales Police Force and the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service. If instances of environmental pollution, illegal dumping or land clearing occur, then the NSW Environmental Protection Authority will also be involved. AUSTLII (2025) provides details on applicable NSW and Australian laws and law enforcement agencies. When it comes to fire, and in particular, when the fire in question has been deliberately lit, investigations are carried out separately, and according to different criteria, by the NSW Police Force and the NSW Rural Fire Service. Emphasis by these agencies appears to be given to fires that cause loss of human life or significant loss of property (O’Sullivan, 2024).
Sustainable finance
The management of the site is funded by the NSW Government. The Australian Government provides funds for an Executive Officer and an Advisory Committee (IUCN Consultation, 2024). Funding sources are secure, though the amount is not sufficient to address the management needs of the property. Extensive feral animal control is being undertaken at significant cost to the NSW Government, along with weed control, management of threatened species, law enforcement, fire management and firefighting. NSW provides an estimated annual budget of over A$12 million in core funding for management, maintenance and presentation, and support for governance arrangements for the GBMA, with additional temporary funding provided by the Australian Government in response to the 2019/20 bushfires (State Party of Australia, 2022 and 2024).
Staff capacity, training and development
The protected areas that comprise the World Heritage property are managed by park-management professionals within government. Staff in the NSW NPWS are highly trained, with ongoing professional development primarily conducted by the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service (NSW NPWS, 2009; IUCN Consultation, 2024). Rangers and specialist staff are highly qualified. Many of the staff are trained and competent in fire management. NPWS has programs to ensure equal employment opportunities and access to appropriate ongoing training and development (IUCN Consultation, 2024)
Education and interpretation programmes
Visitor information centres are located at the major attraction hubs (NSW NPWS, 2009; NSW NPWS, 2025b). Key visitor nodes and trail heads provide interpretive material that highlights the attributes of the GBMA. Some of the maps available are excellent (Spatial Vision, 2018). The NPWS runs an education program that brings school-aged children to the GBMA. Alongside interactive web-based apps and the official NPWS website, these programs seek to foster the next generation of custodians. The BMCC runs innovative programs in local schools to educate local residents on the importance of managing water quality and urban runoff to protect the values of the GBMA. The Blue Mountains World Heritage Institute conducts some education programs and events focusing on the World Heritage property, in partnership with universities. The 'Botanists Way' concept has been developed by the Blue Mountains Botanic Garden at Mt Tomah, adjacent to the GBMA, to provide a basis for expanded visitor interpretation of science and conservation in and around the GBMA (Benson, 2019). The Australian and New South Wales governments have invested in a project 2022-2024 to provide improved educational and interpretative signage and facilities for visitors and education groups across the GBMA (IUCN Consultation, 2024). According to the Blue Mountains Kanangra-Boyd Plan of Management, educational opportunities will be ‘delivered through interpretation, digital technologies, the visitor information centre at Blackheath, commercial tour operators, and education programs and guided activities delivered by NPWS. There is significant potential to expand Aboriginal cultural tourism in the parks, providing opportunities to celebrate and share culture while building business opportunities for members of the local Aboriginal communities’ (NSW NPWS, 2024). Private companies like Scenic World in Katoomba, and nature tour guiding and outdoor adventure companies also promote the importance of GBMA World Heritage Values in their products.
Tourism and visitation management
The Blue Mountains National Park is the most visited national park in New South Wales, with an estimated 6.4 million visits in 2022 (NSW NPWS, 2024), with most of this focussed in towns that occur along the Great Western Highway such as Katoomba. Visitation to the property’s other reserves is more sparse. According to the management plan for the Blue Mountains Kanangra-Boyd National Park, ‘the parks are under growing pressure from increasing visitation, with some of the more popular locations seeing environmental impacts, the capacity of existing facilities exceeded and visitor experience diminished’ and ‘recreational use of the parks will be managed in a regional and landscape context, recognising that opportunities for some activities may be best provided outside the parks. Recreational activities are restricted in some locations, including the special areas, wilderness areas and some specific locations, depending on the nature of the activity. NPWS will continue to promote adherence to relevant codes of practice to maximise the environmental sustainability of visitor activities in the parks' (NSW NPWS, 2024). The park management plans designate certain zones as ‘visitor precincts’ within the parks as well as much larger areas which are zoned as wilderness (NSW NPWS, 2024).
Sustainable use
The protection of the GBMA contributes to sustainable land use through protection of biodiversity and geodiversity, wilderness areas, and water supply for the huge city of Sydney and adjacent population centres (NSW NPWS, 2009; NSW NPWS, 2024).
Monitoring
More comprehensive monitoring is needed to deliver timely information on the status and trend of the attributes that contribute to the property’s OUV given the challenges posed by a radically altered fire regime and invasive species. Dedicated, ongoing human resources and recurrent funding are required to deliver coordinated monitoring and management consistent with the Operational Guidelines (IUCN Consultation, 2024). The 2019-20 fires stimulated investment in surveys conducted across the World Heritage property to assess the condition of the ecosystems post-fire. Reports have been published including post-fire assessment data as well as recommendations for management. Data from these assessments provide baseline information for monitoring and help to inform management policies. The NSW Government continues to deliver the ‘Zero Extinction Framework’ underpinned by targeted management of threatened species and their habitat (NSW NPWS, 2025c). In 2022/23, 33 natural attributes (including individual species and Threatened Ecological Communities) had active conservation projects within the GBMA covering 48 sites. The NSW government’s ‘Ecological Health Performance Scorecards’ aim to enhance the health of NSW’s national parks by tracking key ecological indicators and using that data to refine management actions, including within the World Heritage property. In 2024, 122 park-wide surveillance sites were deployed with 530 cameras and 244 acoustic/ultrasonic devices alongside vegetation, bird and water-quality surveys. Target species included quoll, brush tailed rock wallaby, greater glider, yellow-bellied glider, Wollemi pine, Dwarf mountain pine, Isopogen fletcheri, glossy black cockatoo, gang-gang cockatoo, koala, platypus, Blue Mountains water skinks, frogs and a number of fire sensitive endemic fauna species. NPWS is consulting and engaging with Traditional Custodians and working with community volunteers. The first report card for the area is expected to be published in 2025 (IUCN Consultation, 2024).
Research
Research is carried out by agencies of the Australian and New South Wales governments (NSW NPWS, 2009; IUCN Consultation, 2024), community groups, universities and other organisations, such as the Blue Mountains World Heritage Institute. There is a need for a detailed ongoing inventory of research for the site. The Blue Mountains branch of the NSW NPWS has recently finalised a research and monitoring prospectus completed with the Blue Mountains City Council and the Blue Mountains World Heritage Institute (BMWHI, 2024) to identify research priorities to support the management and protection of the property, including the conservation of World Heritage values.
Effectiveness of management system and governance in addressing threats outside the site
The boundaries of the GBMA World Heritage property are convoluted and long making edge effects significant. Run-off from adjacent coal mines and urban centres into the property have long been a concern, as is weed incursion. Illegal activities immediately adjacent to the property include extraction of stone and firewood, illegal hunting, and dumping of refuse including environmental weeds. The long edges also provide egress for invasive species and pose a management challenge for the control and prevention of feral animals. Feral animal control arrangements are needed that include lands adjacent to the GBMA. Most of the fires that have impacted the property have resulted from lightning strikes, but arson in adjacent areas is also a concern. With this number of detrimental edge effects, it is a challenge for the land manager to address and manage their impacts.
Effectiveness of management system and governance in addressing threats inside the site
The governance and management system for the Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage property are very good by world standards. However, the seriousness of threats to the property is increasing due to climate change and an ever-lengthening list of invasive species. The very high visitation to the central spectacular features of the property along the Great Western Highway adds another pressure. When it comes to fighting large wildfires burning after a period of hot, dry weather, as occurred in 2019/20, the NSW authorities do their best with the resources and people power available. During conditions formally described as 'catastrophic', however, nothing can stop the fires from affecting large parts of the property. The challenge of protecting fire-sensitive parts of the property from such conflagrations becomes acute. The protection of the Wollemi pines from the 2019/20 fires was a success story that can hopefully be replicated in other parts of the property and into the future. Since the fires, Assets of Intergenerational Significance (AIS) can be declared under the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974 for species or areas with natural and cultural significance. The Wollemi pine was the first AIS. The declaration includes the development of Conservation Action Plans and where required, Fire Response Plans that provide fire response authorities with spatially specific fire fighting options that minimise the impacts of wildfires to declared AIS. The concern regarding wildlife is climate change potentially increasing fire frequency and intensity, and the concomitant impact on localised plant and animal species and people.
By world standards, the Greater Blue Mountains Area World Heritage property has a very effective legal framework and management system backed by dedicated professionals and devoted parts of the community. Public participation in management planning is high. While some of the management plans are old, park management have kept responses current through the implementation of other planning programs that apply to specific fields of management such as threatened species and fire management. Education and interpretation programs are excellent. However, the property is bifurcated by a major highway and associated urban development, which complicate planning and management program integrity. Adjacent urban areas and coal mines produce problematic run-off into the property. The major challenges to the park managers come from invasive species and large-scale, uncontrollable wildfires. Strategies are in place and under constant review to tackle invasive species that are already established and to eradicate infestations of new ones. When it comes to wildfires that are ignited by lightning at the height of summer, the challenges multiply. In conditions officially designated 'catastrophic', the fires pose mortal threats to those fighting them and those attempting to escape, and the options for protecting the property's attributes of Outstanding Universal Value are greatly reduced.
Good practice examples
The Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area Strategic Plan (National Parks and Wildlife Service, 2009) is a good example of the coordination of planning and management of an area of 1,032,649 hectares in eight protected areas. It is also an example of local (NGOs and 12 Local Government Areas), New South Wales and Australian government cooperation.
Saving our Species The NSW Government’s Saving our Species program is best practice approach to multi tenure threatened species management. https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/topics/animals-and-plants/threatened-species/saving-our-species-program
NPWS Rapid Aerial Fire Response Teams The NPWS remote areas fire response team(RART) program is used to deliver specialist remote area firefighters rapidly by air to bushfire ignitions (normally lightening) with the aim of containing the fire’s spread, and minimising fire size and the potential for greater impacts.
Saving our Species The NSW Government’s Saving our Species program is best practice approach to multi tenure threatened species management. https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/topics/animals-and-plants/threatened-species/saving-our-species-program
NPWS Rapid Aerial Fire Response Teams The NPWS remote areas fire response team(RART) program is used to deliver specialist remote area firefighters rapidly by air to bushfire ignitions (normally lightening) with the aim of containing the fire’s spread, and minimising fire size and the potential for greater impacts.
A centre of diversification for the Australian scleromorphic flora
High Concern
Trend
Stable
Dry sclerophyll forest covers 85% of the property and carries much of the eucalypt diversity (101 species) (IUCN Consultation, 2024), a key World Heritage attribute (Hager and Benson, 2010). These forests are the flammable matrix that carried the fires across 71% of the site in the 2019/20 fire season, with 29% having burnt at very high to extreme intensity (IUCN Consultation, 2020c and 2024; NSW NPWS 2024; Smith and Smith, 2022). As highly fire-adapted, pyrophytic plants, eucalypts are generally resilient to single fire events. The ecologically critical factors are the interval between fire events, the intensity of sequential fire events (e.g. Barker and Price, 2018), and the climatic conditions post-fire that help or hinder regeneration. Forty of the eucalypt species have highly restricted distributions, and many are classified as rare or endangered (Laffan et al., 2013). Upland Basalt Eucalypt Forests in the Blue Mountains are listed as a Threatened Ecological Community (TEC) and identified by the Australian Government as a high priority for detailed impact assessment in the wake of the 2019/20 fires (State Party of Australia, 2020). Repeated high-intensity fires which occur before post-fire regrowth can mature to produce large volumes of viable seed would be extremely detrimental to such species. Numerous sclerophyll ecosystems, eucalypt habitats and dependent species have been identified as impacted by the Australian Government (2025 and 2022) and conservation groups (Blue Mountains Conservation Society, 2025), while surveys have also shown significant recovery in the populations of some species including Leionema lachnaeoides, Gordon’s wattle Acacia gordonii and Murrumbo mint-bush Prostanthera discolor (IUCN Consultation, 2024). The long-term impact of this one event is still being determined, but it is clear that repeated high-intensity fires will likely have a severe impact on this value (Australian Government, 2022).
An outstanding diversity of habitats and plant communities
High Concern
Trend
Deteriorating
The terrain, vegetation and climate of the Greater Blue Mountains region make it one of the most fire-prone regions in the world (NSW NPWS, 2024). The area has experienced countless bushfires over the ages and much of the vegetation is highly adapted to fire. However, the impact of the 2019/20 wildfires on the property’s habitats and plant communities far exceeds that of most fire seasons, with over 70% of the property burnt (IUCN Consultation, 2020c and 2024; NSW NPWS 2024; State Party of Australia, 2024), 29% of it severely and even places usually spared the impacts of fires (such as moist gullies) affected (Smith and Smith, 2022). Research has identified 200 plant and animal species that have been impacted by the bushfires (State Party of Australia, 2022). At over a million hectares, the property is a large one with great inherent ecological integrity (World Heritage Committee, 2013). However, the property also has a long, convoluted boundary, and so edge effects come into play. The site is threatened by the spread of vertebrate pests, weeds and pathogens (Australian Government, 2024). More than 60 declared noxious weeds are known to occur in the GBMA and many hundreds of environmental weeds of concern have the potential to invade disturbed areas (National Parks and Wildlife Service, New South Wales, 2009). The greatly celebrated but critically endangered Wollemi Pine (Wollemia nobilis) (Zimmer et al. 2019) comprises a few highly localised populations of less than 100 adult plants within the property. All of the wild populations were impacted by fire during the 2019/20 season, but fire intensity was reduced across the populations by the concerted effort of fire-fighters from the NPWS and Rural Fire Service. An assessment and monitoring program is underway to better understand fire impacts on the Wollemi pines. Two translocation sites have been established in Wollemi NP and a translocation site had been established at Mt Tomah Botanic Garden, beside the GBMA, and had a high success rate (83%); all three sites were impacted by the 2019/20 fires and are still under assessment (IUCN Consultation, 2024); the establishment of insurance plantings is provided for in the recovery plan for the species (State Party of Australia, 2019). The dwarf mountain pine is only found within areas kept moist by spray and seepage from waterfalls. In the 2019/20 fires, one site on the Narrow Neck Plateau was burnt and may not recover. The damage to fauna and their habitats from the 2019/20 fires was immense, with one source calculating that over 140 million mammals, birds and reptiles were impacted (Blue Mountains Conservation Society, 2025). Given the trajectory of climate change and the forecasts for an increasing frequency and increasing intensity of droughts and bushfires in Australia (Australian Government, 2022; Smith and Smith, 2022; Ward et al, 2022), it is likely that large tracts of impacted country will burn again in the coming years. Impacts include the gradual elimination of certain species of fauna and flora from repeatedly, heavily burnt areas; contraction of certain plant communities; and potentially fatal impacts on some plant and animal species, in particular those species that cannot migrate (Australian Government, 2022). In addition, the vulnerability of geodiversity to extreme heat from fires, together with potential impacts of changed rainfall regimes on groundwater-dependent habitats, may have consequences for the integrity of this World Heritage property (Australian Government, 2022).
Threatened animal species
High Concern
Trend
Deteriorating
In the wake of the 2019/20 bushfires, the Australian Government released a list of 113 animal species identified by experts as the highest priorities for urgent management intervention over the weeks and months following the fires. Species listed that also comprise attributes of the OUV of the Greater Blue Mountains Area include: 9 fauna species, 4 avian species, 2 reptile species, 5 frog species, the giant dragonfly and many other invertebrate and fish species. Species impacted include the platypus and brush-tailed rock-wallaby (State Party of Australia, 2022). One conservation group calculated that the fires impacted over 140 million birds, mammals and reptiles (Blue Mountains Conservation Society, 2025). Post-fire spotlighting and other surveys were undertaken as part of a cooperative, state-wide approach to the assessment of the greater glider and the yellow-bellied glider in response to the 2019-20 fires including twenty-three sites surveyed within the GBMA, with yellow-bellied gliders and greater gliders showing a decline in response to severe fire (IUCN Consultation, 2024). In the case of the greater glider, this observed decline was steep and linked to the severity of fire at a landscape-scale; this information adds to the story of greater glider decline over time and provides valuable information to guide the development of a species conservation strategy and options for future monitoring (IUCN Consultation, 2024). Almost all known colonies and habitat of the endangered Brush-tailed Rock-wallaby (BTRW) within the Blue Mountains Branch were impacted by the 2019-20 bushfires, but monitored colonies indicate higher populations now than pre-fire, despite fire mortality of up to 20% (IUCN Consultation, 2024). Nevertheless, the likely intensification of the frequency and severity of wildfires is forecast to negatively impact fauna and their habitats (Australian Government, 2022).
Assessment of the current state and trend of World Heritage values
Deteriorating
The Greater Blue Mountains Area World Heritage property is both fire-prone and fire-adapted, and has experienced a great many bushfires over the ages. However, the size and severity of the 2019/20 bushfires were exceptional. They burnt over 70% of the property, 29% of it burning with great intensity, including areas such as moist gullies that are usually spared the impacts of fire. Significant impacts to attributes that contribute to the property’s Outstanding Universal Value were widely recorded. One conservation group calculated that the fires impacted over 140 million birds, mammals and reptiles. While many species of flora and fauna are recovering, forecasts from climate modelling indicate that the 2019/20 conflagration is unlikely to be a one-off event, and that similarly large and severe fires are likely to recur before ecosystems, habitats and species fully recover. The magnitude of projected increases in temperature in Australia over a 75-year period may be beyond the adaptive capacity of many of the property’s key species.
Assessment of the current state and trend of other important biodiversity values
High Concern
Data Deficient
The threatened Temperate Highland Peat Swamps on Sandstone are identified by the Australian Government as a high priority for detailed impact assessment in the wake of the 2019/20 fires (State Party of Australia, 2020). The final Environmental Impact Assessment for the airspace and flight path design of the Western Sydney International Airport at Bradfield, very near to the south eastern section of the GBMA, was released in 2024. This EIS noted that there was significant community and government concern that the new airport, and its proposed flightpaths, may impact GBMA OUVs and GBMA Integrity due to acute, chronic, and temporally increasing noise pollution, and visual pollution to heritage values (i.e. have a major visual amenity impact). It was noted that community and governmental organisation would like to see ongoing monitoring of these impacts (DITRDCA, 2024). The impact of ongoing aircraft noise on many Australian fauna is unknown and not studied.
Additional information
Flood prevention,
Water provision (importance for water quantity and quality),
Pollination
The site provides major ecosystem services to Sydney region by water flow and quality, cleaning air, providing pollinators, regulating floods and drought flow of water to rivers, stopping river sedimentation, etc.
Coal mining on adjacent land continues to represent a moderate threat that could increase in future.
Carbon sequestration,
Water provision (importance for water quantity and quality),
Pollination
The site protects the catchment for Australia’s largest city, Sydney. Joint management arrangements are in place between the NPWS and catchment management authorities.
Drought is impacting the provision of water for habitats.
Outdoor recreation and tourism
Highly attractive natural scenery and extensive wilderness areas with close proximity to Sydney (5 million people) is beneficial to visitors mental and physical health and well being.
Importance for research
Valuable for explanation of natural processes in evolution of landscapes
Importance for research,
Contribution to education
Valuable for building knowledge. Close to several Universities - courses include field trips in the GBMA to learn about conservation.
History and tradition,
Wilderness and iconic features,
Sacred natural sites or landscapes,
Sacred or symbolic plants or animals,
Cultural identity and sense of belonging
Importance for local Aboriginal communities. Sprititual value for people in general to connect with wild nature.
Extreme fires with climate change are impacting the cultural values.
Opening of Western Sydney Airport in 2026 will introduce unprecedented aircraft noise and visual amenity pollution, including in Declared Wilderness, to the GBMA (DITRDCA, 2024).
Opening of Western Sydney Airport in 2026 will introduce unprecedented aircraft noise and visual amenity pollution, including in Declared Wilderness, to the GBMA (DITRDCA, 2024).
The GBMA contains over one million hectares with key benefits at the local, regional and global levels. It provides great opportunities for recreation within very scenic landscapes that have extensive wilderness areas and close proximity to Sydney. It is a very valuable educational resource regarding natural processes, evolution of landscapes, and scientific research for building knowledge.
On a regional level the site provides major ecosystem services to the Sydney region through water flow and quality, clean air, pollination, regulating floods and reducing river sedimentation, and watershed protection as the site protects the drinking water catchment for Australia’s largest city, Sydney. The site is not listed for cultural associations although it does have strong cultural and spiritual importance for the six Aboriginal Language groups of the area. There is one formal Indigenous Land Use Agreement for part of site, with the Gundungurra. The site contains, or is closely associated with a number of declared (under NSW legislation) Aboriginal places: the Three Sisters, The Gully, Kings Tableland, Red Hands Cave, Nye Gnoring (Euroka), Mt Yengo, Shaws Creek, Appletree, Maiyingu Marragu (Blackfellows Hand Cave), Baiame Cave and Emu Cave.
On a regional level the site provides major ecosystem services to the Sydney region through water flow and quality, clean air, pollination, regulating floods and reducing river sedimentation, and watershed protection as the site protects the drinking water catchment for Australia’s largest city, Sydney. The site is not listed for cultural associations although it does have strong cultural and spiritual importance for the six Aboriginal Language groups of the area. There is one formal Indigenous Land Use Agreement for part of site, with the Gundungurra. The site contains, or is closely associated with a number of declared (under NSW legislation) Aboriginal places: the Three Sisters, The Gully, Kings Tableland, Red Hands Cave, Nye Gnoring (Euroka), Mt Yengo, Shaws Creek, Appletree, Maiyingu Marragu (Blackfellows Hand Cave), Baiame Cave and Emu Cave.
| № | Organization | Brief description of Active Projects | Website |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Blue Mountains Conservation Society | Community outreach re OUV of GBMA; advocacy for protection of the values |
https://www.bluemountains.org.au/
|
| 2 | NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service | Extensive number of conservation projects across the eight reserves of the GBMA and in collaboration with neighbours across extensive buffer areas. Includes a number of NSW Government Saving Our Species projects. |
www.environment.nsw.gov.au
|
| 3 | Colong Foundation for Wilderness | Ongoing advocacy for the protection of the GBMA. Active campaign in 2019/20 to oppose the raising of the Warragamba Dam wall. |
https://www.colongwilderness.org.au/
https://www.giveadam.org.au/
|
| 4 | Blue Mountains City Council | Range of measures to control impacts on the GBMA (especially stormwater management) as well as community engagement in relation to the OUV. |
https://www.bmcc.nsw.gov.au/
|
| 5 | Blue Mountains World Heritage Institute | Research into ecosystems and threats to inform policy and management. Research into historical and social aspects. Community engagement especially in relation to bushfire threat and place attachment (Ratnam et al, 2016; Chapple et al., 2017). |
www.bmwhi.org
|
References
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| 34 |
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