iSimangaliso Wetland Park
Country
South Africa
Inscribed in
1999
Criteria
(vii)
(ix)
(x)
The conservation outlook for this site has been assessed as "good with some concerns" in the latest assessment cycle. Explore the Conservation Outlook Assessment for the site below. You have the option to access the summary, or the detailed assessment.
The ongoing fluvial, marine and aeolian processes in the site have produced a variety of landforms, including coral reefs, long sandy beaches, coastal dunes, lake systems, swamps, and extensive reed and papyrus wetlands. The interplay of the park's environmental heterogeneity with major floods and coastal storms and a transitional geographic location between subtropical and tropical Africa has resulted in exceptional species diversity and ongoing speciation. The mosaic of landforms and habitat types creates breathtaking scenic vistas. The site contains critical habitats for a range of species from Africa's marine, wetland and savannah environments. © UNESCO
Summary
2025 Conservation Outlook
Finalised on
11 Oct 2025
Good with some concerns
Current state and trend of VALUES
Low Concern
Overall THREATS
Overall PROTECTION and MANAGEMENT
Full assessment
Description of values
Geographically diverse area with superlative vistas along its 220 km-long coast
Criterion
(vii)
The site is geographically diverse with superlative scenic vistas along its 220 km-long coast, including areas of exceptional natural beauty and aesthetic importance. From the clear waters of the Indian Ocean, wide undeveloped sandy beaches, forested dune cordon and mosaic of wetlands, grasslands, forests, lakes and savannah, the iSimangaliso Wetland Park contains exceptional aesthetic qualities (World Heritage Committee, 2011).
The shifting salinity states within Lake St Lucia
Criterion
(vii)
The shifting salinity states of Lake St Lucia from low to hyper-saline are linked to wet and dry climatic cycles, and are considered an outstanding natural phenomenon (World Heritage Committee, 2011).
Vivid natural spectacles including nesting turtles and large aggregations of flamingos and other waterfowl
Criterion
(vii)
The spectacle of large numbers of nesting turtles on the beaches and the abundance of dolphins and migration of whales and whale sharks off-shore is an outstanding natural phenomenon. The huge numbers of waterfowl and large breeding colonies of pelicans, storks, herons and terns are impressive and add life to the wild natural landscape of the area (World Heritage Committee, 2011). iSimangaliso is the most important breeding site for waterbirds in South Africa with presence of globally threatened species, range-restricted species, biome restricted species and the site holds more than 20,000 waterbirds on a regular basis (Barnes, 1998).
The combination of fluvial, marine and Aeolian processes which have resulted in a variety of landforms and are on-going to present day
Criterion
(ix)
iSimangaliso is an outstanding example representing significant ongoing ecological and biological processes in the evolution and development of terrestrial, fresh water, coastal and marine ecosystems, and communities of plants and animals. The combination of fluvial, marine and aeolian processes initiated in the early Pleistocene has resulted in a variety of landforms and continues to the present day. The site’s transitional geographical location between sub-tropical and tropical Africa as well as its coastal setting have resulted in exceptional species diversity. Past speciation events in the Maputaland Centre of Endemism are also ongoing and contribute another element to the diversity and interplay of evolutionary processes at work. In the marine component of the site, the sediments being transported by the Agulhas current are trapped by submarine canyons on the continental shelf allowing for remarkably clear waters for the development of coral reefs. The interplay of this environmental heterogeneity is further complicated by major events such as droughts, floods and coastal storms, which are regularly experienced in the site. The site is also of sufficient size and retains most of the key elements that are essential for long-term functioning of the ecosystems. The ecological linkages between the five ecosystems found in the iSimangaliso Wetland Park have been a major attraction for research on the geomorphological and biological processes occurring here (World Heritage Committee, 2011). The five ecosystems are (i) the marine ecosystem, characterised by a warm sea, the southernmost extension of coral reefs in Africa, submarine canyons and long sandy beaches (ii) the coastal dune system, consisting of linear dunes up to 180 m in height, sub-tropical forests, grassy plains and wetlands (iii) lake systems, consisting of two estuarine-linked lakes (St Lucia and Kosi) and four large freshwater lakes (Sibaya, Ngobozeleni, Bhangazi North and Bhangazi South) (iv) the uMkhuze and uMfolozi swamps, with swamp forest, extensive reed and papyrus wetlands, and (v) the inland western shores, with ancient shoreline terraces and dry savannah woodlands, thickets and sand forests that occur on the higher lying ground between the coastal plain and the Lubombo Mountains.
Significant diversity of African biota
Criterion
(x)
The five interlinked ecosystems found in iSimangaliso provide habitat for a significant diversity of African biota, including a large number of rare, threatened and/or endemic species. iSimangaliso contains some of the most important and significant natural habitats for the in-situ conservation of biological diversity, including those containing threatened species of outstanding universal value from the point of view of science or conservation.
As iSimangaliso is situated on the southernmost extremity of the Mozambique coastal plain, it hosts numerous species reaching the southernmost limit of their range which are, thus, not found elsewhere in South Africa. This adds to the value and importance of this unique area from a South African species conservation perspective. The presence of some of these species north of our borders cannot detract from the importance of conserving the South African populations, as little information is generally available on their conservation status and distribution in other parts of southern and central Africa. iSimangaliso is clearly a critical habitat for a range of species from Africa’s marine, wetland and savannah environments.
The species lists for the site are the most comprehensive in the region and population sizes for most of them are viable. There are also 48 species present that are listed as threatened internationally and 147 on the CITES list. The site is clearly a critical habitat for a range of species from Africa’s marine, wetland and savannah environments. Of the over 6,500 plant and animal species known to occur in the park, populations of species of conservation importance include 11 species that are endemic to the park, and 108 species endemic to South Africa, while 467 are listed as threatened in South Africa (World Heritage Committee, 2011).
As iSimangaliso is situated on the southernmost extremity of the Mozambique coastal plain, it hosts numerous species reaching the southernmost limit of their range which are, thus, not found elsewhere in South Africa. This adds to the value and importance of this unique area from a South African species conservation perspective. The presence of some of these species north of our borders cannot detract from the importance of conserving the South African populations, as little information is generally available on their conservation status and distribution in other parts of southern and central Africa. iSimangaliso is clearly a critical habitat for a range of species from Africa’s marine, wetland and savannah environments.
The species lists for the site are the most comprehensive in the region and population sizes for most of them are viable. There are also 48 species present that are listed as threatened internationally and 147 on the CITES list. The site is clearly a critical habitat for a range of species from Africa’s marine, wetland and savannah environments. Of the over 6,500 plant and animal species known to occur in the park, populations of species of conservation importance include 11 species that are endemic to the park, and 108 species endemic to South Africa, while 467 are listed as threatened in South Africa (World Heritage Committee, 2011).
One of the most important breeding areas for waterbirds in South Africa
The entire iSimangaliso Wetland Park is a designated Important Bird and Biodiversity Area (BirdLife South Africa, 2015) and also contains Key Biodiversity Areas.
iSimangaliso Wetland Park supports more than 500 bird species and is one of the most important breeding areas for waterbirds in South Africa, with at least 48 species having bred here. Due to the variability of the St Lucia system, the lakes may hold very important numbers of a species in some years and almost insignificant numbers in others. The numbers and diversity of waterbirds vary considerably in response to environmental changes. Not only are waterbirds largely absent during periods of high salinity or elevated water levels, but many species are migratory or nomadic, occurring only in defined seasons.
iSimangaliso Wetland Park supports more than 500 bird species and is one of the most important breeding areas for waterbirds in South Africa, with at least 48 species having bred here. Due to the variability of the St Lucia system, the lakes may hold very important numbers of a species in some years and almost insignificant numbers in others. The numbers and diversity of waterbirds vary considerably in response to environmental changes. Not only are waterbirds largely absent during periods of high salinity or elevated water levels, but many species are migratory or nomadic, occurring only in defined seasons.
Cultural heritage
iSimangaliso exhibits many examples of living heritage, which are age-old traditions still being practised today by the Zulu and Thonga people. These include oral histories, cultural traditions, land use and resource management practices, and indigenous knowledge systems. An excellent example of this is the on-going fish trapping in Kosi Bay, a site and activity that are protected as living history and which provide some of the best extant working examples of such traps anywhere in the world (iSimangaliso Wetland Park Authority, 2023).
Assessment information
The iSimangaliso Wetland Park WH site faces several key threats and risks, many associated with the hydrological functioning of the system and the long north-south orientation of the park, resulting in increasing exposure to threats along its 220km western border. The main threats to the site are from extensive transformative land uses in the catchment areas, resulting in increased sedimentation and changing water flows. Due to these being located outside of the park, this will require extensive collaborative engagements with the agricultural and forestry sectors. Management interventions on invasive species have already shown positive results, and is flexible in order to adapt to new and emerging invasive species when these are identified. Extensive increases in human settlements is placing additional pressures on the immediate boundary of the park, mainly through unsustainable fishing practices and poaching. Additional transformation of key swamp forest habitats is also being carried out for subsistence agriculture. Many of these threats have the potential to significantly impact on the OUV of the site, specifically the hydrological functioning and the unique biodiversity that has adapted to this ecosystem, however the authority's management efforts and the collaboration with key stakeholders is commendable.
Fishing, Harvesting & Controlling Aquatic Species
(Unsustainable fishing)
Other targeted species names
Neosarmatium meinerti; Callianassa krauassi; Acanthopagrus berda; Pomadasys commersonnii; Mugilidae; Rhabdosargus sarba; Trachinotus botla; Caranx heberi; Caranx melampygus; Lethrinus crocineus
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
Outside site
The threat of unsustainable fishing originates as a result of the location of the iSimangaliso Wetland Park and the numerous communities surrounding it. Historically local communities used traditional, sustainable fishing methods, but more recently the increase in the size of the communities and the socio-economic situation (this region is economically poor with few opportunities) forces communities to fish more intensely for their needs, resulting in unsustainable fishing methods, potentially impacting on the fish stocks and the values of the World Heritage site. Fish stocks in Kosi Lake are being over-exploited as illegal gill nets are used in addition to traditional fish harvesting methods (James et al. 2001, 2008; Carbutt, 2012; IUCN Consultation, 2012b; Kyle, 2013). There is also harvesting of Neosarmatium meinerti and Callianassa krauassi crustaceans from the Kosi Lakes, however the current status is unknown. Illegal fishing using gillnets has also been an issue in Lake St Lucia in the past (Mann, 1995; Crook & Mann, 2002), but current levels are unknown. Management of so called no-take marine protected areas (MPAs) have been criticized limiting local fisheries, however, a 12-year study shows several species of fish, including Rhabdosargus sarba, Trachinotus botla and Caranx heberi, are sensitive towards catch & release methods when exhibited in high intensity (e.g. by tourists instead of researchers only), which poses a threat towards their populations (Mann et al., 2018). Dames et al. (2020) suggests some fish species (eg. Caranx elampygus and Lethrinus crocineus) may be particularly vulnerable to fishing pressure, which is permitted in the Controlled Pelagic Zones (CPZs) in contrast to the No-take Sanctuary Zone (NTSZ), where it is not permitted.
Dams & Water Management/Use, Biological System Management
(Managing a complex freshwater / estuarine ecosystem)
Inside site
, Widespread(15-50%)
Outside site
The iSimangaliso wetland system is an extremely complex ecosystem, being an interface between the marine system and terrestrial freshwater system, fed by numerous rivers and streams. This complexity poses several management challenges for the management authority, which are exacerbated by upstream land uses and the impacts on sediment loads and weather patterns affecting the amount of freshwater runoff into the lakes system, which impacts on the salinity of the system, influencing management decisions regarding the opening / closing of the mouth.
In line with research findings (Bate et al., 2011), the St Lucia Estuary and Mfolozi River systems were re-joined in July 2012, opening the way for the restoration of the Lake St Lucia ecosystem. In 2011, the Mfolozi River (the main freshwater contributor to the lakes) was reconnected to the lakes, providing additional freshwater to the system, stabilising salinity levels and reducing potential impacts. This was further supported by a GEF 5 project in 2015, removing sediments to provide improved connection between the Mfolozi River and the Lakes.Due to the mouth being closed, the lakes transitioned to a more freshwater system. In order to address these management challenges, the Management Authority convened a symposium in 2020 to explore the "breaching of the mouth", which was done in January 2021. This was supported by an Independent Panel appointed by the Minister of DFFE to review the outcomes and actions stemming from the 2020 symposium recommendations. The Management Authority continue to monitor the situation and provide regular updates to the WH Committee (State Party of South Africa, 2022).
In line with research findings (Bate et al., 2011), the St Lucia Estuary and Mfolozi River systems were re-joined in July 2012, opening the way for the restoration of the Lake St Lucia ecosystem. In 2011, the Mfolozi River (the main freshwater contributor to the lakes) was reconnected to the lakes, providing additional freshwater to the system, stabilising salinity levels and reducing potential impacts. This was further supported by a GEF 5 project in 2015, removing sediments to provide improved connection between the Mfolozi River and the Lakes.Due to the mouth being closed, the lakes transitioned to a more freshwater system. In order to address these management challenges, the Management Authority convened a symposium in 2020 to explore the "breaching of the mouth", which was done in January 2021. This was supported by an Independent Panel appointed by the Minister of DFFE to review the outcomes and actions stemming from the 2020 symposium recommendations. The Management Authority continue to monitor the situation and provide regular updates to the WH Committee (State Party of South Africa, 2022).
Residential Areas
(Densification of rural settlements in Zone of Influence)
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
Outside site
Densification of rural settlements near the park’s boundaries is occurring, specifically Kosi Bay (KwaNgwqanase), Dukuduku, Nibela, Qongwana (just outside Sodwana) and Mseleni settlement (west of Lake Sibaya). The uMhlabuyalingana Municipality encompasses the informal settlements of Mbazwane and Manguzi. Of the 39614 households, 19.1% have electricity and 1.6% have piped water (Local government handbook, 2020). The dependence ratio is 82.0%. The Big Five Hlabisa Municipality is also rural, and of the 25255 households 70.1% have electricity while 11% have piped water (Local government handbook, 2020). The dependence ratio is 79.9%. The populations within these areas are increasing and may increase edge effects such as incursions, illegal developments, resource use, poaching etc. within the site if not managed appropriately. The management authority aims to develop 20 nodes within the property to improve local livelihoods through tourism business opportunities. Currently an EIA is being undertaken prior to any developments commencing (State Party of South Africa, 2022).
However, informal developments are taking place within the site boundaries, especially in the area directly north-east of Lake Sibaya and in the Bhanga Nek area. This results in increased pressures on the park boundary and potential illegal activities within the park. This also links closely to the unsustainable fishing practices as the increase in human population requires increasing food recourses from the park. The management authority is driving a process to establish a formal buffer zone as a mechanism to address the various land use and resource requirements (State Party of South Africa, 2022).
However, informal developments are taking place within the site boundaries, especially in the area directly north-east of Lake Sibaya and in the Bhanga Nek area. This results in increased pressures on the park boundary and potential illegal activities within the park. This also links closely to the unsustainable fishing practices as the increase in human population requires increasing food recourses from the park. The management authority is driving a process to establish a formal buffer zone as a mechanism to address the various land use and resource requirements (State Party of South Africa, 2022).
Recreation & Tourism Areas
(Tourism developments in Zone of Influence)
Outside site
There have been localised but illegal resort developments (small-scale) in the northern Coast Forest section of the park (KwaDapha and Mabibi) with vegetation clearing (IUCN Consultation, 2012b), all of which have been removed and demolished. Rehabilitation has been completed at these sites. Development controls are in place (Kuppan, 2009; Sapa, 2010). The management authority aims to develop 20 nodes within the property to improve local livelihoods through tourism business opportunities. Currently an EIA is being undertaken prior to any developments commencing (State Party of South Africa, 2022).
Hunting, Collecting & Controlling Terrestrial Animals, Gathering, Harvesting & Controlling Terrestrial Plants & Fungi, Fishing, Harvesting & Controlling Aquatic Species
(Poaching of animals (including rhinos) and illegal harvesting of plants, such as cycads and pelagics by illegal longliners often at night)
Other targeted species names
Black Rhino (Diceros bicornis); White rhino (Ceratotherium simum); pelagic fish
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
Poaching persists and continues to be a threat to the integrity of the park. The Management Authority has increased surveillance of the boundary and law enforcement activities within the park. The threat of rhino poaching continues broadly in the region, although the park has not had any rhino poached for the past several years. Unpublished reports of poaching of pelagics does occur by illegal longliners, particularly along the South African/Mozambique border at nigh-time.
The staff capacity continues to be an issue in responding to these illegal activities. The management authority has however secured a number of additional staff through the DFFE Environmental Monitors programme, who are deployed in a law enforcement role.
The staff capacity continues to be an issue in responding to these illegal activities. The management authority has however secured a number of additional staff through the DFFE Environmental Monitors programme, who are deployed in a law enforcement role.
Shipping Lanes
(Pollution from ships)
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
Outside site
Waste material from passing ships washes up onto the beaches. The Management Authority implements a coast care programme, a job creation programme for local communities that includes the cleaning of beaches. Pollution from shipwrecks has been successfully prevented by emergency measures being implemented together with the South African Marine Safety Authority (SAMSA) (IUCN Consultation, 2012b).
Invasive / Other Problematic Species, Genes & Pathogens, Invasive Non-Native/ Alien Species
(Invasive alien species)
Invasive/problematic species
Chromolaena odorata
Psidium guajava
Casuarina equisetifolia
Lantana camara
Parthenium hysterophorus
Tarebia granifera
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Outside site
This remains a significant threat in the site, being affected by the hydrological functioning of the system and the pressures from the neighbouring land uses. Several invasive alien plant species (including Chromolaena odorata, Psidium guajava, Casuarina equisetifolia, Lantana camara, Parthenium hysterophorus) occur in the site, predominantly in areas of disturbance. The impacts are exacerbated by continued infestations from neighbouring timber plantations and other disturbance events. The Asian invasive gastropod, Tarebia granifera, has been recorded and monitoring is ongoing (Appleton et al. 2009; Miranda & Perissonotto, 2014). Unfortunately there are no known control measures for this species (Raw et al., 2012).
An Invasive Species and Control Plan is integrated into the updated Management Plan (2021 - 2031) and is being implemented focusing on priority areas and the securing of funding.
An Invasive Species and Control Plan is integrated into the updated Management Plan (2021 - 2031) and is being implemented focusing on priority areas and the securing of funding.
Water-borne & other effluent Pollution
(Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and herbicides)
Inside site
, Widespread(15-50%)
Outside site
High levels of Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) detected in two common fish species Oreochromis mossambicus (Mozambique tilapia) and Clarias gariepinus (African sharptooth catfish) as well as in Crocodylus niloticus (Nile crocodiles) in the lakes and wetlands at iSimangaliso Wetland Park highlight potential human health and ecotoxicological threats (Humphries 2013; Buah-Kwofie et al., 2018a; b). Birds are also affected (Bouwman et al. 2019). Porter et al. (2018) consider coastal groundwater to be the likely source of the pollutants finding high concentrations of OCP in coral species Sarcophyton glaucum, Sinularia gravis and the sponge Theonella swinhoei. Buah-Kwofie et al. (2019) detected elevated levels of OCP residues in all product crops commonly cultivated by rural communities surrounding iSimangaliso Wetland Park with the majority of samples exceeding European Commission’s maximum residue limits (MRLs). Therefore residues in crops and fish from the study area pose a high risk to human health.
Widespread contamination of herbicides in riverine sediments and St Lucia estuarine environment have also been detected. Ecological assessment indicates potential risk to algae and aquatic invertebrates (Tyohemba et al. 2020).
Widespread contamination of herbicides in riverine sediments and St Lucia estuarine environment have also been detected. Ecological assessment indicates potential risk to algae and aquatic invertebrates (Tyohemba et al. 2020).
Water-borne & other effluent Pollution, Industrial/ Military Effluents, Agricultural effluents
(Heavy metal contamination)
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
High levels of arsenic have been detected in several species of fish from Kosi Lake that are likely to pose a risk to human health, however it is unknown what the risk may be to biodiversity (Beukes 2018). Furthermore, particularly high levels of nickel have been found in the soft coral Sinularia from Sodwana Bay (van der Schyff et al. 2020).
Recreational Activities
(SCUBA diving and boating)
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Dames et al. (2020) suggests there is a possibility of disturbance from scuba diving to fish species, which e.g. has impacted the population structure and habitat selection of Lethrinus crocineus in Controlled Pelagic Zones (CPZs). Curry et al. (2012) and Floros et al (2013) concluded that human activities are signicantly affecting fish communities. Divers also damage coral which is why diver carrying capacity was calculated, but this did not consider disturbance to fish communities (Schleyer & Tomalin 2000).
The bigger issue here is that there is no buffer area as far as zonation in the marine environment is concerned. Sodwana Bay, where all the diving is undertaken, lies oppsosite the Central Reef Complex, in the core of the marine environment of the site. As such, the core of the marine environment in this site is the most disturbed and heavily utilised, which is contrary to best practices. The iSimangaliso Wetland Park integrated management plan is also looking at creating another launch site opposite Nine-mile Reef which may add to levels of disturbance in the core area of the site.
The bigger issue here is that there is no buffer area as far as zonation in the marine environment is concerned. Sodwana Bay, where all the diving is undertaken, lies oppsosite the Central Reef Complex, in the core of the marine environment of the site. As such, the core of the marine environment in this site is the most disturbed and heavily utilised, which is contrary to best practices. The iSimangaliso Wetland Park integrated management plan is also looking at creating another launch site opposite Nine-mile Reef which may add to levels of disturbance in the core area of the site.
Annual & Perennial Non-Timber Crops, Wood & Pulp Plantations
(Increased transformation of the buffer zone from intensive and subsistence agricultural activities)
Outside site
Due to the natural "design" of the WH site, aimed at securing the natural and biological assets of the coastal lakes system, it results in an extensive 220km western boundary. Extensive commercial agricultural activities are carried out in the catchment areas, impacting directly on the park boundary, as well as indirectly through the reduction in water flows and increases in sediment loads.
The impacts of timber plantations have been particularly significant. Since the time of inscription there has been a significant drop in average water levels in Lake Sibaya (State Party of South Africa, 2022). The moratorium on the issuing of new forestry licenses in the catchment area by the Department of Water Affairs (DWA) has been effective as no new timber growing applications have been approved. Together with the DWA, the ecological water reserve has been determined for Lake St Lucia, Sibaya Lake and the Kosi lakes. A hydrological study has been completed for the buffer zone and has been included in a revised Integrated Management Plan 2021-2031.
Many of the ecosystems of the site are dependent on groundwater recharge. Unsustainable abstraction of groundwater is likely to be having a negative effect when one considers increasing populations and commercial forestry, especially during droughts. This could lead to potential seawater invasion of the coastal aquifer (Weitz & Demlie, 2013). Critically endangered swamp forest has been cleared in at least two areas within the site for subsistence agriculture and the wetland canalized (iSimangaliso, 2019a,b).
Analyses between 1987 and 2017 revealed the significant depletion of the water surrounding site area which might be as a result of natural or human activities which may include climate change, built-up areas and agricultural activities. In 1987 and 2017, the results showed that wetland extent was 655.416 Km2 and 429.489 Km2 respectively which connotes that iSimangaliso Wetland has witnessed significant changes over the area. It was also revealed that the other land features (vegetation, built-up, open surface and rocky surface) over the area increased from 2149.911 Km2 to 2375.838 Km2 in 1987 and 2017 respectively (Orimoloye et al. 2020).
Within the Sodwana region, extensive transformation of swamp forest took place through subsistence slash and burn practices. Extensive community engagements have been undertaken by the Management Authority to address the economic needs of the community, including the construction of the Sodwana Bay craft market. Aerial monitoring since 2020 has indicated that the transformation has ceased and the swamp forest is recovering. Further monitoring continues, with the assistance of SAEON (State Party of South Africa, 2022).
The impacts of timber plantations have been particularly significant. Since the time of inscription there has been a significant drop in average water levels in Lake Sibaya (State Party of South Africa, 2022). The moratorium on the issuing of new forestry licenses in the catchment area by the Department of Water Affairs (DWA) has been effective as no new timber growing applications have been approved. Together with the DWA, the ecological water reserve has been determined for Lake St Lucia, Sibaya Lake and the Kosi lakes. A hydrological study has been completed for the buffer zone and has been included in a revised Integrated Management Plan 2021-2031.
Many of the ecosystems of the site are dependent on groundwater recharge. Unsustainable abstraction of groundwater is likely to be having a negative effect when one considers increasing populations and commercial forestry, especially during droughts. This could lead to potential seawater invasion of the coastal aquifer (Weitz & Demlie, 2013). Critically endangered swamp forest has been cleared in at least two areas within the site for subsistence agriculture and the wetland canalized (iSimangaliso, 2019a,b).
Analyses between 1987 and 2017 revealed the significant depletion of the water surrounding site area which might be as a result of natural or human activities which may include climate change, built-up areas and agricultural activities. In 1987 and 2017, the results showed that wetland extent was 655.416 Km2 and 429.489 Km2 respectively which connotes that iSimangaliso Wetland has witnessed significant changes over the area. It was also revealed that the other land features (vegetation, built-up, open surface and rocky surface) over the area increased from 2149.911 Km2 to 2375.838 Km2 in 1987 and 2017 respectively (Orimoloye et al. 2020).
Within the Sodwana region, extensive transformation of swamp forest took place through subsistence slash and burn practices. Extensive community engagements have been undertaken by the Management Authority to address the economic needs of the community, including the construction of the Sodwana Bay craft market. Aerial monitoring since 2020 has indicated that the transformation has ceased and the swamp forest is recovering. Further monitoring continues, with the assistance of SAEON (State Party of South Africa, 2022).
Implementation of the legislation controlling shipping activities and the application of emergency response protocols reduce the potential and actual pollution threat. Future effects related to climate change will need to be considered to assess the threat status and appropriate adaptation responses. The potential threat from mining and offshore drilling activities remains, although there are currently no new proposals and the management authority is committed to protecting the site's OUV and carrying out sufficient EIA processes.
Shipping Lanes, Water-borne & other effluent Pollution
(Pollution - marine and coastal)
Inside site
, Widespread(15-50%)
Outside site
With the escalation in shipping along the coast, pollution from cleaning of bilge tanks of ships, potential oil spills from tankers and occasional shipwrecks on the coast and reefs will occur. Emergency response procedures are in place to counter this threat (IUCN Consultation, 2014).
Changes in Temperature Regimes, Changes in Precipitation & Hydrological Regime
(Changing climatic conditions resulting in hotter and wetter conditions, affecting the biodiversity assets through changing hydrological conditions.)
Inside site
, Widespread(15-50%)
Outside site
Climate change predictions in southeastern Africa are that it will become hotter and wetter and sea levels will rise. The exact future effects on these wetland and coastal systems are a matter of speculation to some extent as comprehensive data on the effects of projected climate change across the many values for which the site is listed is lacking. However, the overwhelming majority of climate models predict warming and the site contains many thermally sensitive species such as marine calcareous organisms, which have already shown signs of thermal stress (IUCN Consultation, 2020). Climate change also carries potential impacts on the hydrodynamics of the site which underpin many of the sites values and may have already contributed (likely in combination with other factors including natural and human activities) to significant depletion of the water surrounding iSimangaliso Wetland area (Orimoloye et al., 2020; iSimangaliso Wetland Park Authority, 2022).
Therefore, this potential threat is assessed as high, even in the absence of fully comprehensive monitoring data.
Therefore, this potential threat is assessed as high, even in the absence of fully comprehensive monitoring data.
Oil & Gas exploration/development , Mining & Quarrying
(Mining and offshore drilling activities)
Outside site
No mining is permitted in iSimangaliso, apart from an existing Perlite mine in the Mkhuze section of the park. However there is a threat of mining around park perimeters, for which suitable buffer areas (e.g. air and water quality, ambient noise) are necessary. A future extension of Richards Bay Minerals (RBM) northward towards iSimangaliso will present a threat, as does illegal sand mining, which has become a universal problem in the region (and South Africa) (isimangaliso Wetland Park Authority, 2022). In the past, prospective mining and offshore exploratory drilling activities outside the property have been proposed, however the WH Committee noted that these may have adverse impacts on the property (UNESCO, 2021). The management authority has reported its objection to such activities and continues to monitor and report on impacts with potentially affect the OUV. Further, the State Party endeavours to ensure that all potential proposals comply with environmental legislations and undergo appropriate EIA processes prior to any activities commencing (State Party of South Africa, 2022). At this time no such activities are occurring, however there remains potential for new proposals and the impact on the OUV may be significant.
Involvement of stakeholders and rightsholders, including indigenous peoples and local communities, in decision-making processes
The Wetland Authority places extensive importance on the engagements with stakeholders, both within the park and its neighbouring communities and other stakeholders and utilises a stakeholder engagement strategy as an overall framework. There is a very robust engagement process, including (Isimangaliso Wetland Park Authority, 2023) -
i) St Lucia Multistakeholder Forum - this includes all stakeholders within St Lucia, and is extremely active in addressing multiple issues regarding the park and its management.
ii) Small scale fisheries - formal structures with the small-scale fishers to address fisheries management.
iii) Lake Sibaya Forum - engagement with the communities on the boundary of Lake Sibaya.
iv) Catchment management Forum - addressing issues of management in the catchments, specifically with several government departments responsible for land use or water use management.
Overall the attention to stakeholder engagement is extensive and is the primary tool in addressing threats and developing management interventions. The commitment by the Wetland Authority to ensure robust and legitimate engagements is resulting in highly effective community interventions to ameliorate key threats to the park.
i) St Lucia Multistakeholder Forum - this includes all stakeholders within St Lucia, and is extremely active in addressing multiple issues regarding the park and its management.
ii) Small scale fisheries - formal structures with the small-scale fishers to address fisheries management.
iii) Lake Sibaya Forum - engagement with the communities on the boundary of Lake Sibaya.
iv) Catchment management Forum - addressing issues of management in the catchments, specifically with several government departments responsible for land use or water use management.
Overall the attention to stakeholder engagement is extensive and is the primary tool in addressing threats and developing management interventions. The commitment by the Wetland Authority to ensure robust and legitimate engagements is resulting in highly effective community interventions to ameliorate key threats to the park.
Legal framework
Protection and environmental laws are in place and are enforced systematically by mandated law enforcement staff.
Governance arrangements
The Wetland Authority is an entity of the Department of Forestry Fisheries and the Environment (DFFE), with a functioning Board which reports to the DFFE Minister. The Wetland Authority provides regular reporting, quarterly to the Minister and annually to the WH Committee. The Wetland Authority has a Management Agreement with Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife, who provide conservation management services, law enforcement and research activities. There is a separate agreement with Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife with regards the management of the MPA.
Integration into local, regional and national planning systems (including sea/landscape connectivity)
The iSimangaliso Wetland Park has a unique design, extending 220km in a north-south orientation. This means that the park has 5 Local and 2 District Municipalities on its western boundary. The park is well entrenched in all planning tools of these structures and the Wetland Authority has extensive engagements with these Municipalities in addressing the various management aspects.
The iSimangalio Wetland Authority Board also has representation by a range of stakeholders, including government, Traditional Authorities and other stakeholders.
The South African Environmental Observation Network (SAEON) is currently performing work to determine an ecological reserve for the water resources in northern KwaZulu Natal to feed into the work that has been initiated to develop the iSimangaliso Wetland Park World Heritage site buffer zone. A three-year Water Research Commission project (Project No. C2020/2021-0043) was undertaken to assess the impact of historical and future land-use and land cover (LULC) changes under different climate scenarios, which will inform the buffer planning process. The formalisation of the buffer zone will be a key planning tool in addressing many of the external threats to the park.
South Africa has also assisted in the initiation of the Lubombo Spatial Development Initiative between South Africa, Mozambique and Eswatini, focusing on a broader cross-boundary TFCA structure. This has significant value for the broader region and integrated planning measures. Additionally the park's revised 2022 corporate strategy links to various other governmental plans improving cohesion (e.g. with NDP objectives, post-covid 19 recovery plans, Eight government priorities of the Sixth administration, medium term strategic framework of the Environmental sector 2019-2024) (iSimangaliso Wetland Park Authority, 2023).
The iSimangalio Wetland Authority Board also has representation by a range of stakeholders, including government, Traditional Authorities and other stakeholders.
The South African Environmental Observation Network (SAEON) is currently performing work to determine an ecological reserve for the water resources in northern KwaZulu Natal to feed into the work that has been initiated to develop the iSimangaliso Wetland Park World Heritage site buffer zone. A three-year Water Research Commission project (Project No. C2020/2021-0043) was undertaken to assess the impact of historical and future land-use and land cover (LULC) changes under different climate scenarios, which will inform the buffer planning process. The formalisation of the buffer zone will be a key planning tool in addressing many of the external threats to the park.
South Africa has also assisted in the initiation of the Lubombo Spatial Development Initiative between South Africa, Mozambique and Eswatini, focusing on a broader cross-boundary TFCA structure. This has significant value for the broader region and integrated planning measures. Additionally the park's revised 2022 corporate strategy links to various other governmental plans improving cohesion (e.g. with NDP objectives, post-covid 19 recovery plans, Eight government priorities of the Sixth administration, medium term strategic framework of the Environmental sector 2019-2024) (iSimangaliso Wetland Park Authority, 2023).
Boundaries
The iSimangaliso MPA was formally expanded in 2019, providing additional protection to the wider marine environment, resulting in the iSimangaliso Wetland Park now consisting of some 1 328 900ha (or 13 289 square kilometres), also making it the second largest protected area in the country after the Kruger National Park (IWPA, 2019a). However, there remain some issues with the delineation of the western boundary and there are areas where the boundary is not clearly marked or fenced which has in part contributed to the transformation of critically endangered swamp forest to the entrance of the Sodwana Bay area and in the Mapelane area. Furthermore, there is a lack of offshore enforcement of the boundaries.
The WH site is exploring a transboundary WH site with Mozambique, with the application for WH status for the Maputo National Park. The extension is currently pending (MNAP, 2025).
The WH site is exploring a transboundary WH site with Mozambique, with the application for WH status for the Maputo National Park. The extension is currently pending (MNAP, 2025).
Overlapping international designations
The site is integrated into the Lubombo Spatial Development Initiative which is a three country (South Africa, Swaziland and Mozambique) programme focused on agriculture and tourism development (IMP, 2011). Furthermore iSimangaliso Wetland Park, has four RAMSAR sites, which amount to the largest total area of RAMSAR wetlands in South Africa. These RAMSAR sites, fall under the Park's MPAs and they are; St Lucia Lake, Lake Sibaya, Mgobozeleni and Kosi Bay Lakes. iSimangaliso Wetland Park Authority, have faced several challenges managing these RAMSAR sites, with a lot of the challenges centered around Lake Sibiya. However, through the integrated management plan, there is an overall framework to coordinate management and improve collaboration.
Implementation of World Heritage Committee decisions and recommendations
The Wetland Authority have been effective in addressing the World Heritage Committee decisions and recommendations, as described in the regular annual reports.
i) Clearing of swamp forest habitat in Mgobozeleni Forest - these subsistence agricultural practices have ceased through community engagements and monitoring has shown the swamp forest to be recovering (State Party of South Africa, 2022). In collaboration with SAEON and EFTEON a rehabilitation plan is being implemented.
ii) Updating the Integrated Management Plan - the IMP has been updated and approved for the period 2022 - 2031. This IMP provides extensive ability for stakeholder engagement and participation in management.
iii) Water levels at Lake Sibaya - water levels have improved due to improved rainfall and a continuation of the moratorium on issues forestry licences in the catchment.
iv) Establishment of a buffer zone - the extent of the buffer zone is currently being determined, and will be informed by the SAEON research on the hydrological model (State Party of South Africa, 2022).
v) Estuary mouth breaching - The Wetland Authority continue to place significant emphasis on the management of the estuary mouth, its ecological requirements, informed by regular monitoring.
vi) Development of 20 tourism development nodes - the Wetland Authority has informed the WH Committee of its intention to develop new and update existing tourism facilities. The Wetland Authority is currently conducting a cumulative environmental impact assessment.
i) Clearing of swamp forest habitat in Mgobozeleni Forest - these subsistence agricultural practices have ceased through community engagements and monitoring has shown the swamp forest to be recovering (State Party of South Africa, 2022). In collaboration with SAEON and EFTEON a rehabilitation plan is being implemented.
ii) Updating the Integrated Management Plan - the IMP has been updated and approved for the period 2022 - 2031. This IMP provides extensive ability for stakeholder engagement and participation in management.
iii) Water levels at Lake Sibaya - water levels have improved due to improved rainfall and a continuation of the moratorium on issues forestry licences in the catchment.
iv) Establishment of a buffer zone - the extent of the buffer zone is currently being determined, and will be informed by the SAEON research on the hydrological model (State Party of South Africa, 2022).
v) Estuary mouth breaching - The Wetland Authority continue to place significant emphasis on the management of the estuary mouth, its ecological requirements, informed by regular monitoring.
vi) Development of 20 tourism development nodes - the Wetland Authority has informed the WH Committee of its intention to develop new and update existing tourism facilities. The Wetland Authority is currently conducting a cumulative environmental impact assessment.
Climate action
The Wetland Authority is currently not performing any specific activities in relation to potential climate change impacts, although these will be partially addressed through stakeholder engagements with the key agricultural and forestry sectors regarding the impacts from the catchment. This is probably the most important action on which to focus to address elements of climate change mitigation. The measures in the park are guided by the National Climate Change Response Strategy and the National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy. The park's activities have focussed on (iSimangaliso Wetland Park Authority, 2022):
-The restoration of natural systems in an effort to improve the resilience of the park (for example, restoration of the Lake St Lucia estuarine system, interconnection of wetlands and dune rehabilitation
at Sodwana and St Lucia).
-The removal of infrastructure situated in vulnerable areas (viz. infrastructure in low lying areas or within the coastal management line).
-Raising of roads to prevent flooding during times of heavy rain.
-Supply of water to dry areas during times of drought.
-A coastal management line that will guide development.
The site has a rewilding strategy to focus restoration efforts, engage local communities and distribute economic and social benefits.
-The restoration of natural systems in an effort to improve the resilience of the park (for example, restoration of the Lake St Lucia estuarine system, interconnection of wetlands and dune rehabilitation
at Sodwana and St Lucia).
-The removal of infrastructure situated in vulnerable areas (viz. infrastructure in low lying areas or within the coastal management line).
-Raising of roads to prevent flooding during times of heavy rain.
-Supply of water to dry areas during times of drought.
-A coastal management line that will guide development.
The site has a rewilding strategy to focus restoration efforts, engage local communities and distribute economic and social benefits.
Management plan and overall management system
The Integrated Management Plan for the site has been revised and approved for the 2022-2031 period (iSimangaliso Wetland Park Authority, 2022). The day-to-day conservation management is undertaken by Ezemvelo KwaZulu-Natal Wildlife (provincial conservation authority, EKZNW), as defined by a management agreement with iSimangaliso Wetland Park Authority. Staff undertakes the strategic and project management and day-to-day management of the site, implementation of community development programmes, management of research and monitoring. Improved transboundary cooperative communication and management is currently being undertaken with the neighbouring Maputo National Park through an extension nomination which is currently pending (State Party of Mozambique, 2025).
Law enforcement
The national and provincial conservation and environmental laws and regulations are enforced by Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife on behalf of the Management Authority through a Management Agreement. EKZNW staff are stationed throughout the park at strategic locations. However, a lack of law enforcement has led to the systematic transformation of swamp forest at Sodwana Bay in the past (IUCN Consultation, 2020). This is being addressed in a systematic manner, that integrates law enforcement with community engagement and beneficiation activities. Furthermore, there are no offshore law enforcement patrols being conducted in the marine environment, except from Cape Vidal, which is a concern (IUCN Consultation, 2020).
Sustainable finance
Budget provision is made annually to the iSimangaliso Wetland Authority from National Government and to EKZNW from Provincial Government. The Management Authority continues to obtain external funding / support from the following entities -
i) Wild Trust, who are coordinating an extensive Blue Action Fund project, focused on the MPA management. Extensive resources and equipment have been provided to the park in support of their management.
ii) Pantera - leopard research.
iii) Wildlife Act - threatened species monitoring activities.
iv) Additional government resources from EPWP funding, providing environmental and tourism monitors as additional staff capacity.
The park continues to require additional external funding to support its management activity needs and relies on income from tourism (iSimangaliso Wetland Park Authority, 2022).
i) Wild Trust, who are coordinating an extensive Blue Action Fund project, focused on the MPA management. Extensive resources and equipment have been provided to the park in support of their management.
ii) Pantera - leopard research.
iii) Wildlife Act - threatened species monitoring activities.
iv) Additional government resources from EPWP funding, providing environmental and tourism monitors as additional staff capacity.
The park continues to require additional external funding to support its management activity needs and relies on income from tourism (iSimangaliso Wetland Park Authority, 2022).
Staff capacity, training and development
Extensive staff shortages exist in both the iSimangaliso Wetland Authority and EKZNW. The Wetland Park Authority has reported 68 permanent positions (iSimangaliso Wetland Park Authority, 2023). Both organisations rely on additional government resources from the EPWP programme. EKZNW are still to appoint a Park Manager, since the retirement of the previous Park Manager, which places additional management pressure on the park staff. A further issue is the difficulty in the recruitment process, resulting in long delays in filling posts. Generally capacity is low across all management aspects. The Wild Trust have provided extensive training in law enforcement and general management skills. They have further provided "contract" Marine Officers in support of the MPA management. The issue of unskilled and inadequate personnel is recognised by the Wetland Park Authority and a key future priority is the training of staff (iSimangaliso Wetland Park Authority, 2023).
Education and interpretation programmes
There is extensive attention and investment being placed on a formal education and awareness programme in the park. The activities of the Park Authority and EKZNW are fully aligned, with a formal EE programme aligned to the annual environmental calendar. EKZNW carry out extensive EE work by their Community Conservation Officers.
The Wetland Authority also provide a formal community upskilling programme, where bursaries are provided to community members.
This is fully supported by the Park Authority SMME programme, which has focused on supporting community-led enterprises, providing approximately 5,000 job opportunities through these initiatives (iSimangaliso Wetland Park Authority, 2023).
The Wetland Authority also provide a formal community upskilling programme, where bursaries are provided to community members.
This is fully supported by the Park Authority SMME programme, which has focused on supporting community-led enterprises, providing approximately 5,000 job opportunities through these initiatives (iSimangaliso Wetland Park Authority, 2023).
Tourism and visitation management
Paying visitors to the park in 2018 / 19 were estimated at approximately 280,000 people. The number of paying visitors in 2023 / 24 were estimated at approximately 180,000 people (iSimangaliso Wetland Park Authority, 2023). Despite being a substantial decline, the park is building its occupancy back after the Covid pandemic. The management authority is rolling out extensive marketing and tourism strategies to increase the numbers with one of the authority’s mandates being to uplift the local communities living adjacent to the park through initiatives such as improving access to the park and providing employment and business opportunities.
Mush of the tourism is undertaken through concessions, with 64 separate concessions managed during 2023, most being contracted for a 3 to 5-year period. This is supported by the Parks SMME programme, building capacity for local enterprises.
Tourism infrastructure is generally in good condition, but varies between products. The Management Authority is focusing on two elements -
i) Reliable park access and infrastructure - improving the state of the facilities.
ii) Building additional tourism infrastructure for claimant communities, provide direct beneficiation to these communities.
Mush of the tourism is undertaken through concessions, with 64 separate concessions managed during 2023, most being contracted for a 3 to 5-year period. This is supported by the Parks SMME programme, building capacity for local enterprises.
Tourism infrastructure is generally in good condition, but varies between products. The Management Authority is focusing on two elements -
i) Reliable park access and infrastructure - improving the state of the facilities.
ii) Building additional tourism infrastructure for claimant communities, provide direct beneficiation to these communities.
Sustainable use
The approved Integrated Management Plan (2022 - 2031) and the sustainable use policy of the Wetland Authority guides all "use" activities. These are essentially small-scale fishing (managed in a structured manner with the fishers) and ncema grass harvesting (for basket weaving). The focus of sustainable use activities is on beneficiation for communities surrounding the park. There are some issues regarding the sustainability of fisheries (especially Kosi Bay) where gill nets are used.
Monitoring
Due to the complexity of the ecology of the system, the Wetland Authority has requested a specific ecologist post, in addition to the ecological staff of EKZNW. The Wetland Authority now has its own ecologist, significantly improving the implementation of research and monitoring activities. Extensive research is carried out within the St Lucia estuary, focused on specific species of the estuary mouth dynamics and guided by the biodiversity monitoring programme (iSimangaliso Wetland Park Authority, 2023). The research activities are further supported by the presence of several partners -
i) a SAEON node, focusing on forest dynamics, vegetation assessments and water / hydrological modelling.
ii) Oceanographic Research Institute (ORI) have a number of active research projects.
i) a SAEON node, focusing on forest dynamics, vegetation assessments and water / hydrological modelling.
ii) Oceanographic Research Institute (ORI) have a number of active research projects.
Research
Essential monitoring of biotic and abiotic components is ongoing, and includes -
i) Monitoring of physical and chemical parameters of Lake St Lucia has improved with the implementation of an automatic electronic data gathering and storage application. This has allowed the Management Authority to assess the impact of a range of management interventions.
ii) Monitoring in the marine environment includes: number of catches of line-fish, surf-zone fish.
iii) Threatened species monitoring - a formal and regular turtle monitoring programme is in place, being one of the longest uninterrupted monitoring programmes. Further monitoring of Coelacanth, whale shark and bull shark populations.
iv) Assessments of reef fish and shark populations as well as coral reef monitoring surveys (long-term).
v) Monitoring of the estuarine system includes ground and estuarine waters.
vi) Monitoring of animal populations focuses on endangered species (i.e. wild dog, leopard) in addition to rare plant species and conservation assessments of insect and butterfly biodiversity. Following a project for the contraception of elephants, monitoring is being conducted.
vii) An annual bird counts are also performed by aerial census, to understand the dynamics of these bird populations, in response to maintaining one of the core values of the WH site.
At present, much of the research conducted in the park is defined by individual researchers and research teams. External research applications are processed through a research committee comprising iSimangaliso and Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife staff members, assisted when necessary by independent specialists. The committee meets four times a year to consider applications, and to balance research efforts in support of understanding and park management needs. Researchers are required to sign a contract with iSimangaliso against which compliance is monitored. In addition, Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife monitor a range of biological and physical/chemical parameters at various sites in the park in order to inform management, e.g. salinity levels in the lake systems, turtle monitoring, game counts, etc. (iSimangaliso Wetland Park Authority, 2022). An overall research strategy would enhance coordination and linkage of results to improve management.
i) Monitoring of physical and chemical parameters of Lake St Lucia has improved with the implementation of an automatic electronic data gathering and storage application. This has allowed the Management Authority to assess the impact of a range of management interventions.
ii) Monitoring in the marine environment includes: number of catches of line-fish, surf-zone fish.
iii) Threatened species monitoring - a formal and regular turtle monitoring programme is in place, being one of the longest uninterrupted monitoring programmes. Further monitoring of Coelacanth, whale shark and bull shark populations.
iv) Assessments of reef fish and shark populations as well as coral reef monitoring surveys (long-term).
v) Monitoring of the estuarine system includes ground and estuarine waters.
vi) Monitoring of animal populations focuses on endangered species (i.e. wild dog, leopard) in addition to rare plant species and conservation assessments of insect and butterfly biodiversity. Following a project for the contraception of elephants, monitoring is being conducted.
vii) An annual bird counts are also performed by aerial census, to understand the dynamics of these bird populations, in response to maintaining one of the core values of the WH site.
At present, much of the research conducted in the park is defined by individual researchers and research teams. External research applications are processed through a research committee comprising iSimangaliso and Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife staff members, assisted when necessary by independent specialists. The committee meets four times a year to consider applications, and to balance research efforts in support of understanding and park management needs. Researchers are required to sign a contract with iSimangaliso against which compliance is monitored. In addition, Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife monitor a range of biological and physical/chemical parameters at various sites in the park in order to inform management, e.g. salinity levels in the lake systems, turtle monitoring, game counts, etc. (iSimangaliso Wetland Park Authority, 2022). An overall research strategy would enhance coordination and linkage of results to improve management.
Effectiveness of management system and governance in addressing threats outside the site
The Wetland Authority has extensive programmes to try and address the threats from outside the park, despite financial and capacity constraints. The Wetland Authority has managed to ensure some key interventions (e.g. moratorium on forestry licences), although more is required with the agricultural sector regarding land use in the catchment. The Wetland Authority needs to urgently conclude their process of formalising the buffer zone, and negotiation regulations for land use activities with all stakeholders.
Effectiveness of management system and governance in addressing threats inside the site
The Wetland Authority has developed reasonably effective management systems within the park, despite the financial and capacity challenges. A key intervention has been the employment of a specific park ecologist to the Wetland Authority, in additional to the EKZNW ecologist. This has improved the capacity to deal with key research and monitoring activities required to inform management decisions. A past METT assessment scored the park 86% in 2015-2016.
The Management Authority has been mostly effective in its protection and management of the site. Despite the significant challenges regarding financial and human resources, the Wetland Authority has managed to prioritise and implement management and protection activities that will have the most significant positive impact. The Wetland Authority has further recognised the need to invest in specialist staff, employing a dedicated ecologist and has built strong relationships with key stakeholders. They have been very effective in building external partners to support additional staff, training and equipment provisioning (e.g. Wild Trust), while additional government resources fill some of the staff shortages. The additional focus on community engagements and support (bursaries, SMME programme, EE programme) have resulted in significant success in addressing management challenges (e.g. reduced transformation of swamp forest habitat, zero rhino poached in the past 2 years).
Good practice examples
(1) Building strong partnerships with external stakeholders has been critical to addressing funding and staff gaps. This continues to be a good strategy in dealing with complex ecosystems. (2) A focus on community uplift as a means of addressing key threats to the Park has been important - the delivery of benefits to communities, the support of co-management agreements with land claimants and the participation of local communities in decision making makes iSimangaliso’s conservation model a useful example for other protected area agencies. (3) The ongoing Western Shores collaborative management with SiyaQhubheka continues to maintain an effective and well buffered margin to the site. (4) A strong focus on regional integration of planning and management, having a strong stakeholder engagement platform participation in broad multi-country initiatives (SA, Mozambique and eSwatini) and integration with the Maputo National Park, a possible extension of the WHS.
Geographically diverse area with superlative vistas along its 220 km-long coast
Good
Trend
Stable
The iSimangaliso WH site has maintained its diverse vistas, and managed to ensure the scenic values of the coastline are maintained. Limited infrastructure development along the coastline contributes to this, while there still requires some attention to exotic trees used historically as dune stabilisers (Casuarina's). Along the inland western border, there has been some increase in human settlement and broader development, which does impact on the overall scenic values. The attention given to the management of Lake St Lucia and Lake Sibaya speaks to the management authority's commitment to maintaining the diversity in the area, in good condition. Despite the many pressures on the site, the indication is that this value has remained at least stable since the previous assessment.
The shifting salinity states within Lake St Lucia
Good
Trend
Improving
The management of the broad lake system has received extensive attention, testimony to the importance placed on this issue, and maintaining this value of the WH site. The management authority continues to invest in extensive expert workshops and engagements in order to obtain the best possible knowledge on the system, and the management interventions required. The national review of management activities has also added further knowledge to the understanding of this system.
A concern has been the reduced capacity of Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife to provide the necessary expertise, which led to the management authority employing their own dedicated ecologist, which has allowed the monitoring of management intervention to ensure an adaptive management approach. Regular monitoring of the hydrology of the lake system will continue to allow for expert-based decision making.
This is further being supported by interventions outside of the WH site, in the catchment areas. The continued moratorium on plantation permits and the engagements within catchment forums, are all aimed to providing improved decisions regarding this complex ecological system.
A concern has been the reduced capacity of Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife to provide the necessary expertise, which led to the management authority employing their own dedicated ecologist, which has allowed the monitoring of management intervention to ensure an adaptive management approach. Regular monitoring of the hydrology of the lake system will continue to allow for expert-based decision making.
This is further being supported by interventions outside of the WH site, in the catchment areas. The continued moratorium on plantation permits and the engagements within catchment forums, are all aimed to providing improved decisions regarding this complex ecological system.
Vivid natural spectacles including nesting turtles and large aggregations of flamingos and other waterfowl
Low Concern
Trend
Stable
The iSimangaliso WH site is probably the most important site for nesting turtles in South Africa. A recent review of the iSimangaliso WH site (as an IOSEA network site) has shown that nesting turtle numbers are stable to increasing, with positive trends continuing. This is due to the fact that the site confers the highest possible protection status for turtles, while the extended offshore Marine Protected Area provides additional protection during inter-nesting periods. The management authority continues to monitor turtles, which not only provides data on trends, but also provides regular on-the-ground presence of monitors that deters poaching. As a result, very low levels of poaching are recorded. This is further supported by the excellent relationships the management authority has fostered with local communities through their engagement mechanisms.
iSimangaliso Wetland is the most important breeding site for waterbirds in South Africa, with the presence of globally threatened species, range-restricted species, biome restricted species and the site holds more than 20,000 waterbirds on a regular basis (Barnes, 1998). These spectacles of bird population continue to persist in the lakes system on an annual basis. Although affected by long-term salinity / water level trends in the lakes, the attention to understanding the adaptive management needs of the system has led to this value being maintained.
iSimangaliso Wetland is the most important breeding site for waterbirds in South Africa, with the presence of globally threatened species, range-restricted species, biome restricted species and the site holds more than 20,000 waterbirds on a regular basis (Barnes, 1998). These spectacles of bird population continue to persist in the lakes system on an annual basis. Although affected by long-term salinity / water level trends in the lakes, the attention to understanding the adaptive management needs of the system has led to this value being maintained.
The combination of fluvial, marine and Aeolian processes which have resulted in a variety of landforms and are on-going to present day
Low Concern
Trend
Improving
Generally, abiotic and biotic processes continue to function largely unhindered. The largest changes in the system are as a result of the changing water levels and salinity of the lakes, as a result of the management of the St Lucia estuary mouth. Focus on ensuring management is maintained according to best practice ensures that natural cycles are as best maintained, within the bounds of human-induced impacts. The extended Marine Protected Area also provides further protection for the marine / terrestrial interface. Small impacts are taking place through clearing for subsistence agriculture and infrastructure development (minimal), while some impacts on the foredunes experiencing erosion.
Significant diversity of African biota
High Concern
Trend
Improving
The fifteen interlinked ecosystems found in the iSimangaliso Wetland Park provide habitat for a significant
diversity of African biota, including a large number of rare, threatened and/or endemic species. These fifteen
ecosystems are not unique in and of themselves but their combination within a single protected area is certainly unusual globally and unique in the South African context. This results in the presence of over 6500 plant and animal species, including 11 species endemic to the Park, 56 species endemic to KwaZulu-Natal and 108 species endemic to South Africa. The park further supports viable populations of 467 listed threatened species.
Dedicated and committed management by the Management Authority is focused on maintaining this biodiversity, and is supported by key interventions -
i) The WHS management is guided by an approved Integrated Management Plan.
ii) The management authority reviews its management through an annual performance assessment and plan (iSimangaliso Wetland Park Authority 2023/24 Annual Performance Plan).
iii) Management of the lake system is aimed at maintaining diversity of ecosystems, which appear to be well maintained at present.
iv) Focus on catchment impacts is aimed at maintaining the ecological processes required to maintain ecological diversity in the WHS.
v) Extensive community engagement processes allow for mechanisms to reduce impacts on key species, by reducing poaching and illegal access.
vi) Extensive restoration of areas, either active wetland restoration or alien plant clearing (more than 170,000ha cleared and treated between 2020 and 2022) undertaken. The coastline also undergoes an annual clean-up, to ensure pollution does not affect threatened species.
vii) Fish stocks - more needs to be done to reduce the impacts from over-fishing, especially the use of more modern gill-nets as opposed to traditional methods. Some concerns are growing regarding the impacts of pollution from passing ships as well as several marine and freshwater species showing concerning levels of organochlorine pesticides in their tissues.
diversity of African biota, including a large number of rare, threatened and/or endemic species. These fifteen
ecosystems are not unique in and of themselves but their combination within a single protected area is certainly unusual globally and unique in the South African context. This results in the presence of over 6500 plant and animal species, including 11 species endemic to the Park, 56 species endemic to KwaZulu-Natal and 108 species endemic to South Africa. The park further supports viable populations of 467 listed threatened species.
Dedicated and committed management by the Management Authority is focused on maintaining this biodiversity, and is supported by key interventions -
i) The WHS management is guided by an approved Integrated Management Plan.
ii) The management authority reviews its management through an annual performance assessment and plan (iSimangaliso Wetland Park Authority 2023/24 Annual Performance Plan).
iii) Management of the lake system is aimed at maintaining diversity of ecosystems, which appear to be well maintained at present.
iv) Focus on catchment impacts is aimed at maintaining the ecological processes required to maintain ecological diversity in the WHS.
v) Extensive community engagement processes allow for mechanisms to reduce impacts on key species, by reducing poaching and illegal access.
vi) Extensive restoration of areas, either active wetland restoration or alien plant clearing (more than 170,000ha cleared and treated between 2020 and 2022) undertaken. The coastline also undergoes an annual clean-up, to ensure pollution does not affect threatened species.
vii) Fish stocks - more needs to be done to reduce the impacts from over-fishing, especially the use of more modern gill-nets as opposed to traditional methods. Some concerns are growing regarding the impacts of pollution from passing ships as well as several marine and freshwater species showing concerning levels of organochlorine pesticides in their tissues.
Assessment of the current state and trend of World Heritage values
Improving
None of the site values have experienced any significant deterioration since the last Outlook assessment in 2020. From all accounts, despite the financial and capacity challenges, resources have been directed to the most important elements that are addressing management to protected the World Heritage site and its Outstanding Universal Value. However, the Wetland Authority still relies extensively on external partners, while the ongoing relationship between the Park Authority and Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife needs to be strengthened. In order to maintain the site's values, the management authority must maintain its robust community engagement programmes, its rigorous research and monitoring programmes, and needs to extend its broad engagements to ensure that catchment related land use issues do not impact on these values.
Assessment of the current state and trend of other important biodiversity values
Low Concern
Deteriorating
Many of the site's other important biodiversity values have shown significant improvement in the past, and this has resulted in an increased resilience of this World Heritage site and its Outstanding Universal Value. However, there are currently a number of concerning issues that are impacting on the other biodiversity features -
i) the high amounts of organochlorine are alarming posing a severe threat to all biodiversity of the park.
ii) the increasing in shipping activities along the coastline, causing impacts from spills, bunker cleaning and general debris.
iii) The increase in tourism node development as part of the community beneficiation programme should be monitored to ensure increased human activities do not disturb biodiversity features.
i) the high amounts of organochlorine are alarming posing a severe threat to all biodiversity of the park.
ii) the increasing in shipping activities along the coastline, causing impacts from spills, bunker cleaning and general debris.
iii) The increase in tourism node development as part of the community beneficiation programme should be monitored to ensure increased human activities do not disturb biodiversity features.
Assessment of the current state and trend of other important values
Good
Stable
There are currently no indications that cultural values are declining.
Additional information
Outdoor recreation and tourism
The natural coastal environment together with its tourist facilities provided both within and outside of the site are used by local, national and international visitors to their benefit.
The Wetland Authority is currently considering the development of several new tourism nodes. Attention should be paid to the impacts of infrastructure, lighting and associated disturbance on the values of the WHS.
Importance for research
The site has been well studied and many postgraduate students and research organisations continue to undertake research projects.
Coastal protection
Marine, terrestrial, wetland and estuarine biodiversity services function optimally as a result of adaptive management principles. The integrated terrestrial and marine protected areas provides for coastal protection and its associated environmental services.
High concentrations of organochlorine found in animal tissue.
Inappropriate coastal developments would impact on these values.
Inappropriate coastal developments would impact on these values.
Fishing areas and conservation of fish stocks
Many people rely on the lake system for subsistence fishing. Major fisheries depend on the estuarine functioning of St Lucia lake system.
Over-exploitation of fish species is a long-term concern as human population grows along the WHS boundary. This pressure for fish resources needs to be countered by appropriate socio-economic support to communities.
Natural beauty and scenery
One of the world heritage values of this site is that it is geographically diverse with superlative scenic vistas along its 220 km-long coast, including areas of exceptional natural beauty and aesthetic importance.
Ensure appropriate tourism development at all times.
Sustainable extraction of materials (e.g. coral, shells, resin, rubber, grass, rattan, etc)
Sustainable harvesting of grasses and sedges for building materials.
Maintain monitoring of activities to ensure appropriate levels of use.
Contribution to education
The site makes a significant contribution to education. Apart from the extensive environmental education activities of the Wetland Authority, a partnership with WildOceans has resulted in the development of resource centres/hubs at three sites. These are based at eNkovukeni, KwaDapha and Mabibi and provides a platform for local communities for engaging with management authorities. These hubs provide support for the communities for key initiatives such as building ocean awareness, training, micro-enterprise development, employment opportunities for youth, support for community involvement in conservation activities and tourism opportunities, facilitate access to amenities (e.g. library, play area for children, cell-phone charging stations, printers, computers, and internet access), promote craft production and sales, and demonstrate projects linked to nature-based solutions and climate-smart agriculture.
There is also the Crocodile Education Centre at St. Lucia (iSimangaliso, 2019b).
There is also the Crocodile Education Centre at St. Lucia (iSimangaliso, 2019b).
Collection of genetic material
A portion of the research conducted within the site focuses on the collection of genetic material. Examples are the recent work done on soft corals (Etsebeth, 2018) and Pocillopora spp. (Chiazzari et al. 2019) and the discovery of a new species of freshwater crab in the Hluhluwe area of the site (Peer et al. 2015).
Traditional agriculture,
Livestock grazing areas
Neighbouring communities utilise the coastal grasslands and wetland areas for livestock grazing, while some areas of floodplain wetland are cleared for traditional crops.
Engage with communities to ensure appropriate management of livestock and crops, to reduce impacts on the system. Long-term management in an integrated manner will allow these practices to continue despite climate change effects.
Carbon sequestration,
Water provision (importance for water quantity and quality)
The highest densities of swamp forests and peatlands occur within the site which contribute significantly to carbon sequestration and storage (Ellery et al. 2012) as well as have a postive influence on water quality.
There is transformation of swamp forest and peatland to subsistence agriculture in and outside of the site. Continuing transformation of the catchment areas also need to be addressed.
Soil stabilisation,
Coastal protection
Sediment generation by the coral reefs at just Sodwana Bay has been valued at R2.6–R4.8 million, and sediment entrapment valued at R71.8–R84.6 million, totalling between R74.4 million and R89.4 million (≈$5.6–$6.7 million, at R13.38/US$1) per year (Laing et al. 2020). The total value of the Sodwana Bay beach in 2018 was calculated as being worth US$ 21 081 623 (Laing et al. 2020).
Pollination
As a natural world heritage site and one with high biodiversity, the site contributes signifcantly to maintaining pollination interactions (Johnson et al 2009; Griffiths et al. 2010; Joubert & Samways 2011; Gigant et al. 2014)
Natural ecological processes should be maintained throughout the diversity of ecosystems.
Flood prevention
The site is characterized by a high abundance of large wetlands and is prone to receiving large amounts of rain from tropical cyclones (Creek & Rocks, 2015). Wetlands play a critical role in flood mitigation and prevention (Loveline, 2015).
Due to the canalization of the Mfolozi River, the Mfolozi swamps ability to mitigate flooding is compromised (see Cyrus et al. 2010 and Whitfield et al 2013).
History and tradition,
Cultural identity and sense of belonging
The site is rich in cultural heritage, due to the long history of inhabitation of the land, extending back to the Stone and Iron Age. The site is the largest protected area of recorded and potential Stone Age and Iron Age sites in South Africa with a high density of archeological material (Beaumont et al. 1978; Avery 1980; Anderson 2001).
Sacred natural sites or landscapes
There are sacred natural sites within the Site, for example Enkwazini on the eastern shores (Hall, 1980).
Sacred or symbolic plants or animals,
Cultural identity and sense of belonging
There are many symbolic animals, particularly birds with respect to Zulu cultural traditions and beliefs (Biyela, 2009; Koopman, 2018).
Wilderness and iconic features
The site formally incorporates a terrestrial Wilderness area and many iconic features (iSimangaliso, 2022).
It is essential to apply integrated development principles to ensure the wilderness values are maintained, especially with increasing human population pressures and developments.
Major benefits from nature conservation are received by both communities outside the site and further afield. All other benefits are of major importance to the communities outside the site and to a lesser extent to a wider community.
| № | Organization | Brief description of Active Projects | Website |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | iSimangaliso Authority (funding from iSimangaliso and Global Environment Facility) | Lake St Lucia Estuary restoration: The iSimangaliso Wetland Park Authority has raised funds through the Global Environment Facility to investigate and formulate long-term solutions that will, as far as possible, restore the natural hydrological and ecological functioning of this important system. Using the best available scientific knowledge, current management activities are focused on diverting fresh water from the Mfolozi into the lake and allowing the Mfolozi and St Lucia mouths to join. |
https://isimangaliso.com/
|
| 2 | iSimangaliso Authority (funded by iSimangaliso Authority and Department of Environmental Affairs – Natural Resources Management) | Land and Coast Care A management programme aimed at the removal / control of alien invasive plants that threaten the site and subsequent rehabilitation of disturbed environments. Over the past ten years, 3,424 land care contracts were awarded to community based contractors who employed 35,464 people to undertake the rehabilitation of 22,500 ha at a cost of R 70,112,249.64. iSimangaliso is also implementing a Coast Care programme which focuses on the coastal areas of the park. The programme employs 108 people living in the coastal areas over three years to keep the beaches clean, to build infrastructure and for alien vegetation control. Labour intensive methods are engaged to maximise the job creation aspects of the programme, and a capacity building and training component aimed at the people employed is included. |
https://isimangaliso.com/
|
| 3 | iSimangaliso Authority (in partnership with Siyaqhubeka) | Incorporation of land into iSimangaliso Wetland Park. Removal of pine/gum plantations on the eastern and western shores and subsequent rehabilitation of degraded environments. Joint management of incorporated land on western shores – Siyaqhubeka (Mondi). |
https://isimangaliso.com/
|
| 4 | iSimangaliso (in partnership with Ezemvelo) | Game reintroduction programme Re-introduce, re-establish and maintain viable and ecologically appropriately sized populations of depleted or locally extinct indigenous species to optimal ecological carrying capacity and manage for genetic viability by application of appropriate wildlife management practices. |
https://isimangaliso.com/
|
| 5 | iSimangaliso Authoriity (in partnership with the Transfrontier Commission and Ponta Do Ouro Partial Marine Reserve) | Extension of World Heritage Site into Mozambique iSimangaliso continues to support the establishment of one of the five TFCAs. There is action underway to establish a transfrontier site with neighbouring Mozambique as well as extend the marine reserve to align with the terrestrial component for the full length of the iSimangaliso Wetland Park. This would benefit the conservation of the area (IUCN, 1999). |
https://isimangaliso.com/
|
| 6 | iSimangaliso Authority iSimangaliso Authority funds monitoring, radio collars and research. (Partners are Ezemvelo/research organisations and individuals). | Priority species conservation Turtle monitoring programme, rhino conservation programme, rare, threatened and endemic species programme; coral reef monitoring, coelacanth research programme. |
https://isimangaliso.com/
|
| 7 | iSimangaliso (in partnership with Ezemvelo and beneficiary communites) | Natural Resource Management There is a wide range of natural resources harvested by communities living in and around the park, including marine (such as mussels and fish), estuarine (crabs and fish), forest (such as iLala palm and wood for building, fuel wood and carving), grasslands (such as for cattle grazing) and wetland species (such as iNcema). iSimangaliso will continue to provide access for sustainable and wise utilisation of natural resources. Where appropriate, alternative external sources and livelihoods are being explored, facilitated and encouraged in consultation with the beneficiary communities. |
https://isimangaliso.com/
|
| 8 | iSimangaliso Authority (beneficiaries are land claimant and surround communities) | Environmental education and awareness There are approximately half a million people living around the park – most of whom have never visited the park or had a positive educational or recreational experience in the park. Many people do not know why iSimangaliso was listed as a World Heritage site. iSimangaliso has created an environmental education and awareness programme for the park through a schools programme (environmental education fieldtrips/school awards) and an adult awareness programme (mobile workshops in the park). In addition, the Sodwana beach area is now free to access for day visitors. |
https://isimangaliso.com/
|
| 9 | iSimangaliso Authority (beneficiaries are land claimant and surround communities) | Benefits beyond boundaries Beneficiation programmes support iSimangaliso Authority’s conservation efforts by providing alternatives to environmentally harmful practices and garnering support through training, awareness, job and equity creation. The iSimangaliso Authority manages a suite of beneficiation programmes namely: Rural enterprise programme: building and supporting entrepreneurs; Art and Craft programme: training and skilling local artists and crafters to access high value markets; Training tourism guides and chefs, front and backhouse staff as well as placing them in jobs; Co-management training for land claim trusts: providing financial and management skills to land claimant trusts; Creating equity partnerships and ownership in the tourism sector with surrounding previously disadvantaged communities; Job creation and training through the land care, coast care and infrastructure programme. |
https://isimangaliso.com/
|
| 10 | iSimangaliso Wetland Park Authority (unit Park Operations) | PROGRAMME 1: PARK OPERATIONS The primary functions of the unit are to determine conservation policy and ensure that the day-to-day conservation management activities are undertaken in accordance with the Integrated Management Plan for the Park, as well as the Conservation Operational Plan. |
https://isimangaliso.com/
|
| 11 | iSimangaliso Wetland Park Authority (units Tourism and Business Development, Biodiversity Conservation, and Socio-economic Development) | PROGRAMME 2: TRANSFORMATION (SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT) The Socio-economic Development unit is directly responsible for the rolling out of training and development programmes, while the other units are directly responsible for job creation and equity participation in tourism developments. Its primary function is to improve access to job and income generation opportunities for previously disadvantaged individuals and communities who live in and around the Park, including land claimant groups. |
https://isimangaliso.com/
|
| 12 | iSimangaliso Wetland Park Authority (units Tourism and Business Development) | PROGRAMME 3: COMMERCIALISATION The primary functions of the unit are: (a) To identify revenue generation opportunities for the Park that are consistent with the parameters set out in the Park’s IMP and afford economic benefits to claimants and local communities; (b) Implement the tourism development programme for the Park; and (c) Market and promote the Park as a must-see destination. It does this by outsourcing activities to third parties and monitoring the operation of tourism accommodation. |
https://isimangaliso.com/
|
| 13 | iSimangaliso Wetland Park Authority (units Tourism and Business Development) | PROGRAMME 4: FINANCE AND ADMINISTRATION 1. Sub-programme One: Research and Development: The former Research and Development unit (now Socio-economic Development unit) provided scientific, technical and policy support services to the other units and programmes in the Authority. It was also responsible for the roll out of training and capacity building programmes as well as community development programmes. 2. Sub-programme Two: Corporate Governance: The Finance and Administration component is responsible for the financial management of the Organisation, as well as human resources, information technology and administrative support for the CEO. |
https://isimangaliso.com/
|
| 14 | Wild Trust - WildOceans, funded by the Blue Fund | The iSimangaliso Marine Protected Area (MPA) Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) Project is a 4-year (2023 – 2027) initiative, driven by WILDTRUST. The project seeks to improve the natural environment in and around the iSimangaliso Wetland Park World Heritage Site MPA, through a series of interventions that will make the region more resilient in the face of the devastating impacts that come with climate change. The project is uniquely founded on the understanding that the success of the implementation of marine interventions also rests on the successful protection and restoration of estuaries and the natural environment along the coastal belt of the MPA. The Turtle Monitoring project at iSimangaliso has seen significant job creation within the coastal communities and created a sense of ownership for the wildlife and the environment along the coastline. To date, due to the initiation of the turtle monitoring project more than 50 years ago, the Loggerhead turtles have experienced a significant increase in numbers, while the nesting Leatherback turtle population is stabilising. There are approximately only 80 nesting Leatherback and 935 Loggerhead turtles that visit our shores annually |
https://www.wildtrust.co.za/wildoceans
|
| 15 | Wild Trust - WildOceans, funded by the Blue Fund | This is a 5 year project which commenced on the 1st of February 2024, funded by The Light Foundation and co-funded by the Blue Action Fund, focusing on the vulnerable and women and children in three rural communities (villages) located on the coast at iSimangaliso Wetland Park in the uMkhanyakude District of the province of KwaZulu- Natal, also the most under-developed district in South Africa. These villages are situated directly adjacent to the iSimangaliso Marine Protected Area (MPA) and have a high dependence on natural marine and estuarine resources. These women and children include elderly women, either disabled, living alone or having to support large numbers of grandchildren, single mothers at home without income, many being young women who drop out of school due to early pregnancies, and older children ( |
https://www.wildtrust.co.za/wildoceans
|
| 16 | uMkhanyakude District Municipality and King Cetshwayo District Municipality | Employment of unemployed matriculants and graduates with the aim of strengthening stakeholder relationships. | |
| 17 | uMkhanyakude District Municipality | Municipal Cleaning and greening focuses on ensuring that people live in an environment that is not harmful to their health and to have the environment protected for the benefit of current and future generations. |
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