Khangchendzonga National Park
Country
India
Inscribed in
2016
Criteria
(iii)
(vi)
(vii)
(x)
The conservation outlook for this site has been assessed as "good" in the latest assessment cycle. Explore the Conservation Outlook Assessment for the site below. You have the option to access the summary, or the detailed assessment.
Located at the heart of the Himalayan range in northern India (State of Sikkim), the Khangchendzonga National Park includes a unique diversity of plains, valleys, lakes, glaciers and spectacular, snow-capped mountains covered with ancient forests, including the world’s third highest peak, Mount Khangchendzonga. Mythological stories are associated with this mountain and with a great number of natural elements (caves, rivers, lakes, etc.) that are the object of worship by the indigenous people of Sikkim. The sacred meanings of these stories and practices have been integrated with Buddhist beliefs and constitute the basis for Sikkimese identity. © UNESCO
Summary
2025 Conservation Outlook
Finalised on
11 Oct 2025
Good
Current state and trend of VALUES
Good
Overall THREATS
Overall PROTECTION and MANAGEMENT
Full assessment
Description of values
Majestic landscape of stunning visual beauty
Criterion
(vii)
The landscape of the mixed World Heritage site and its surroundings stands out even within the Greater Himalayas, most literally in the form of Khangchendzonga, India’s highest peak and the third highest mountain in the world at 8,586 m.a.s.l. Many of the additional 20 glaciated peaks above 6,000 m.a.s.l. within the site (State Party of India, 2015) are similarly spectacular, including Zemu Glacier, one of the largest in Asia, occupying an area of around 10,700 ha. Similarly, there are 73 glacial lakes in the site including over eighteen crystal clear and placid high altitude lakes (World Heritage Committee, 2016). Below the rugged towering peaks intact old-growth forests reach well above 4000 m.a.s.l., further adding to the exceptional landscape beauty (Chettri, 2010). As the “Abode of the Gods”, the mountain area has exceptional symbolical, cultural, religious and spiritual significance for many peoples and religious beliefs across and beyond the Himalayas. Khangchendzonga is often referred to as the “owner”, “protector” and “guardian” watching over a plentiful “hidden land”, locally known as “Beyul” (Government of Sikkim / Forest, Environment and Wildlife Management Department, 2010). Shared with neighboring Nepal, the Khangchendzonga massif itself is comprised of five major peaks, each of which has specific cultural, religious and spiritual meanings (State Party of India, 2015).
Exceptional habitat mosaic along an extraordinary altitudinal gradient
Criterion
(x)
The impressive vertical difference of more than 7,000 meters between the lowest point (1,220 m.a.s.l.) and the peak of Khangchendzonga at 8,586 m.a.s.l. (State Party of India, 2015) covers one of the most extreme vertical ecological gradients in any protected area on earth, thereby encompassing an enormous range of ecosystems and habitats within a relatively small area (Chettri et al., 2010; Sathyakumar et al., 2011a, b; Tambe et al., 2012; IUCN, 2016). The vertical difference can be directly linked to World Heritage values recognized under criterion (x), but is also visually dramatic.
High plant and animal species richness
Criterion
(x)
Located within a biodiversity hotspot (CEPF, 2005), Khangchendzonga National Park (KNP) boasts one of the highest species richness for mammals and plants documented in the vast high mountain ranges of Asia (IUCN, 2016). Located within the 2C (Central Himalayas) & 1C (Trans Himalayas) Sikkim Himalaya Biogeographic province, one of the most biodiverse regions in the Indian Himalayas KNP, supports extraordinary species richness across taxa. Sathyakumar et al. (2011a) documented 42 mammal species. Flagship species include Snow Leopard as the largest Himalayan predator, Jackal, Tibetan Wolf, large Indian Civet, Red Panda, Goral, Blue Sheep, Himalayan Tahr, Mainland Serow, two species of Musk Deer, two primates, four species of pika and several rodent species, including the parti-coloured Flying Squirrel (World Heritage Committee, 2016). The site is also home to, for example, nearly half of India’s bird, orchid and rhododendron diversity and one third of the country's flowering plants (Chettri et al., 2001; IUCN, 2016). An impressive 1,580 species of vascular plants have been recorded in KNP (Singh and Sundriyal, 2005; Maity et al., 2007) with recent studies confirming that new species discoveries are highly likely (see for example WWF, 2015).
Critical refuge for endemic, rare and threatened flora and fauna
Criterion
(x)
Many of the plant species documented in KNP are rare and threatened, and some endemic (Chettri, 2000; State Party of India, 2015; Arrawatia et al., 2011; Tambe et al., 2010; CEPF, 2005). The national park’s extraordinary altitudinal range of more than 7000 m give rise to an exceptional range of eastern Himalaya landscapes and associated wildlife habitat (World Heritage Committee, 2016). This ecosystem mosaic provides a critical refuge for an impressive range of large mammals including several large predators, such as Asiatic Black Bear and at least four canids, including the elusive Asiatic Wild Dog. A remarkable six cat species have been confirmed within KNP (Leopard, Clouded Leopard, Snow Leopard, Jungle Cat, Golden Cat, and Leopard Cat) (Sathyakumar et al., 2011a, b, 2013).
Extraordinary mosaic of forest types along the altitudinal range of more than 7 kilometres in a relatively small area
While inseparable from values explicitly recognized under World Heritage criterion (x), the diversity and mosaic of forest types deserves to be highlighted. The many forest types range from lush subtropical forests in the lower elevations to stunted "krummholz" forests at the unusually high timber line and include conifer, deciduous and mixed forests (Singh and Sundriyal, 2005; Chettri, 2010; State Party of India, 2015).
Sacred site
Bernbaum (1998) and numerous other references emphasize that Khangchendzonga is not just another sacred site but one of a selected few of highest significance for a range of peoples, cultures and belief systems, including beyond the Himalayas (Rai, 2007; Ramakrishnan, 2008). In this sense, KNP and the surrounding landscape are an outstanding example of the overlap of natural, cultural and spiritual values, aptly recognized by the inscription as a "mixed" World Heritage site in 2016.
Assessment information
Overall, Khangchendzonga National Park (KNP) is in a rare and privileged position. A strong level of legal protection coincides with an extraordinary cultural, religious and spiritual importance and corresponding respect and taboos. Furthermore, vast areas are extremely rugged and/or extremely high and thereby almost or actually inaccessible and naturally protected. The large contiguous protected area in neighbouring Nepal, Khangchendzonga Conservation Area, contributes to buffering the World Heritage site from external threats along most of its western boundary. Climate change may is a major agent of change in KNP with multiple consequences, including for biodiversity. The high vulnerability of the ecological mosaic along the vertical gradient, and the deleterious impacts of Glacial Lake Outbursts Flood (GLOF) on the ecological and social context of the property, make climate change and its effects one of the major threats of the site. Various studies note that the glaciers of Sikkim have retreated and deglaciated significantly over the past 30 years due to climate change, which increases the GLOF risk and impacts on the scenic beauty and biodiversity values of the site.
Recreational Activities
(Impacts of trekking and mountaineering)
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
Outside site
Tourism continues to be small-scale and localized, both in terms of economic importance and ecological, social and cultural impacts (Chettri et al., 2002; State Party of India, 2023). In the few areas where tourism does occur, it comes with the costs and benefits well-known from other destinations in the Himalayas and other remote mountain ranges throughout the world (Maharana et al., 2000). As acknowledged in the nomination (State Party of India, 2015). KCC’s “Zero Waste” initiative has collected over 2000kg of waste every year, helping restore vital water bodies and keep Khangchendzonga National Park (KNP) litter-free. For over 10 years, it has supported conservation, curbed illegal activities, and created local livelihoods-promoting sustainable, community-based, and eco-friendly tourism (Equatorinitiative UNDP (KCC)). Going forward, adequate management is continually needed even though the current touristic use does not amount to a severe threat at this stage - beyond localized littering, trail erosion, grazing impacts from pack animals etc. (see Chettri et al., 2008b for a useful overview).
Changes in traditional ways of life and knowledge systems that result in negative impact
(Increasing disconnection of traditional land and resource users from the land)
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
Outside site
The existence of the national park and corresponding access and resource use regulations are one of many factors of social change. The legal framework strongly influences and to a large degree restricts or excludes natural resource use, including livestock grazing and settlements. A change of profession has been seen in the last two decades, e.g. with the decrease of nomadic pastoralism (State Party of India, 2023). Gupta et al. (2019) argue that the interaction between state policies for conservation, national agriculture and food subsidies, and the effects of globalization are reducing the diversity of foods for the remote, upland communities of Sikkim. The integrated livelihood practice is being eroded over time, at the hands of uniform development goals, making the system highly vulnerable to shocks. Lachungpa (2009) discusses the loss of the ancient nomadic lifestyle of the Dokpa, as well as major changes in the resource use of the transhumant Bhutia, including specifically the so-called Dzumsa system. Besides an "irretrievable loss of ancient wisdom" (Lachungpa, 2009) the consequences are complex and not understood in detail. While reduced use implies a "more natural" system, it is far from clear to what degree longstanding human use has contributed to shaping the current mountain ecosystem and what exactly the ecological consequences of the removal of resource users have been and will be. Likewise, it can be argued that the separation of traditional users from the landscape comes with the risk of increasing the vulnerability of protected areas to external users. In the recent years, initiatives have been taken to revive the age-old traditional yak herding practices by linking the historical genetic exchange practices with Bhutan (Dorji et al., 2019; Ghosh, 2020).
While these question marks are considered very relevant from both management and rights perspectives, from a strict and narrow perspective of nature conservation values, the threat is considered low.
While these question marks are considered very relevant from both management and rights perspectives, from a strict and narrow perspective of nature conservation values, the threat is considered low.
Geological Events
(Direct impacts of earthquakes in a highly active seismic area)
Inside site
, Throughout(>50%)
Outside site
Sikkim is located within a much larger, seismically highly active zone and susceptible to earthquakes. A major earthquake in 2011 had its epicenter in the national park (State Party of India, 2015). Sikkim is located in the Alpine-Himalayan Mountain system, a major earthquake belt and falls under zone IV which is a high damage risk zone or destructive in nature (Bureau of Indian Standard). Beyond obvious implications for disaster preparedness, the risk is a natural factor largely beyond human control in terms of its effects on Khangchendzonga National Park (KNP) and its natural and cultural values. In such a context, a post-earthquake strategy combining disaster relief, ecological preservation and community-based resilience building is essential. Sustainable rebuilding should always prioritize ecological integrity, traditional knowledge and scientific expertise. It can reasonably be argued that seismic activities are part of the natural disturbance regime. Therefore, this assessment concludes that earthquakes represent a low risk for the World Heritage site - while fully acknowledging that earthquakes otherwise constitute a very severe risk to the people and infrastructure of Sikkim (State Party of India, 2023).
Hunting, Collecting & Controlling Terrestrial Animals
(Poaching of mammals and birds)
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Outside site
Park management, volunteer rangers and NGOs report occasional incidents of poaching (IUCN, 2016), posing a threat to game birds, water birds and large- bodied species.
There is no indication that poaching occurs at levels which would seriously threaten the species conservation values at this point in time. Poaching is likely to be restricted to the more accessible areas, whereas vast areas of KNP are extremely difficult to reach at best, suggesting an exceptionally high degree of natural protection.
Nevertheless, studies of the Asiatic black bear have shown an increasing rate of bear-human conflict due to shrinkage and degradation of its habitat. Back bear habitats are confined mainly to forested areas at lower elevations in the vicinity of streams, which mostly occur in the buffer zone of KNP and this area is therefore more susceptible to conflicts. By virtue of also being habitat for rich wildlife and habitation with agriculture, the buffer of the World Heritage site has been shown to be a hotspot of human wildlife conflict (Sharma et al., 2020).
Appropriate steps need to be taken by the managers using both ecological and local information to manage bear-human and other human-wildlife conflicts and to ensure effective protection of species (Bashir et al., 2018).
There is no indication that poaching occurs at levels which would seriously threaten the species conservation values at this point in time. Poaching is likely to be restricted to the more accessible areas, whereas vast areas of KNP are extremely difficult to reach at best, suggesting an exceptionally high degree of natural protection.
Nevertheless, studies of the Asiatic black bear have shown an increasing rate of bear-human conflict due to shrinkage and degradation of its habitat. Back bear habitats are confined mainly to forested areas at lower elevations in the vicinity of streams, which mostly occur in the buffer zone of KNP and this area is therefore more susceptible to conflicts. By virtue of also being habitat for rich wildlife and habitation with agriculture, the buffer of the World Heritage site has been shown to be a hotspot of human wildlife conflict (Sharma et al., 2020).
Appropriate steps need to be taken by the managers using both ecological and local information to manage bear-human and other human-wildlife conflicts and to ensure effective protection of species (Bashir et al., 2018).
Unknown Threats
(Wildlife predation by feral dogs)
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Outside site
Incidence of dogs predating on wildlife has particularly increased in North KNP (IUCN consultation, 2024). Some areas like Chungthgang NHPC, Pegong ITBP, Rangma Range, Mensithang GREF Compound, Chaten Army Compound, Lachen, Zeema , Thangu to Gurudongmar are heavily affected by the problem. They are competing with local predators and disturbing the ecosystem balance. These dogs are dangerous to humans too and there have been some incidence of attacks on humans in Lachen and Lachung (FEWMD, 2018; IUCN consultation, 2024; State Party of India, 2023). While feral dogs are currently restricted to fringe areas near human settlement of Khangchendzonga National Park, proactive management has been ongoing through monitoring, waste management, sterilization and community awareness. However, the core area of the park is unaffected due to remoteness, lack of food source, and strict protection measures (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
Changes in Temperature Regimes, Changes in Precipitation & Hydrological Regime
(Glacial Lake Outbursts Flood (GLOF))
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
Outside site
The rugged Himalayan landscape, characterized by its steep mountains, is especially prone to GLOFs (Glacial Lake Outburst Floods). The ongoing effects of climate change, marked by increasing global temperatures, have accelerated the process of glacier melting in the Sikkim Himalayas. Now, the region has over 300 glacial lakes, with ten identified as at risk of experiencing outburst floods. GLOFs can be triggered by various factors, such as earthquakes, exceptionally heavy rainfall, and ice avalanches, and can have deleterious effects. In 2023, the tragic GLOF incident was triggered by 14.7 million cubic meters of frozen lateral moraine collapsing into South Lhonak Lake, generating an ~20 m tsunami-like impact wave, breaching the moraine, draining ~50 million cubic meters of water, and eroding ~270 million cubic meters of sediment (Sattar et al., 2025).
The casualties rose steadily in the aftermath of the flash flood resulting from the GLOF incident at South Lhonak Lake in the North Sikkim District of Sikkim State. After this occurrence, there was a sudden increase in the Teesta River's water flow, causing the destruction of multiple bridges, substantial damage to sections of NH-10 and the Chungthang Dam, and affecting various small towns situated in the upper regions of the Teesta River valley (Roy et al. 2024).
The physical scale and human and economic impact of this event demand urgent attention on the role of climate change and human activities in exacerbating such disasters. Insights into multihazard evolution are pivotal for informing policy development, enhancing Early Warning Systems (EWS), and spurring paradigm shifts in GLOF risk management strategies in the Himalaya and other mountain environments especially in the context of massive hydropower and linear infrastructure developments in the mountain state of Sikkim.
As per the GLOF hazard assessment report by the Department of Science and Technology, among the 16 lakes, 7 glacial lakes do not have a clear cut surface outlet; therefore, their moraine dams remain vulnerable. The potential hazard of avalanches and ice fall from hanging glaciers is recorded in 14 of these lakes. 7 lakes having been comprehensively evaluated so far. The comprehensive hazard assessment, appropriate lake-level reduction and development of lake-specific mitigation measures is underway. The infrastructure of Khangchendzonga National Park at buffer areas have been severely damaged during the GLOF, including Mundshithang nursery, Forest Guest house, roads, Green Lake trekking trail, Namprikdang nursery and many more (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
The casualties rose steadily in the aftermath of the flash flood resulting from the GLOF incident at South Lhonak Lake in the North Sikkim District of Sikkim State. After this occurrence, there was a sudden increase in the Teesta River's water flow, causing the destruction of multiple bridges, substantial damage to sections of NH-10 and the Chungthang Dam, and affecting various small towns situated in the upper regions of the Teesta River valley (Roy et al. 2024).
The physical scale and human and economic impact of this event demand urgent attention on the role of climate change and human activities in exacerbating such disasters. Insights into multihazard evolution are pivotal for informing policy development, enhancing Early Warning Systems (EWS), and spurring paradigm shifts in GLOF risk management strategies in the Himalaya and other mountain environments especially in the context of massive hydropower and linear infrastructure developments in the mountain state of Sikkim.
As per the GLOF hazard assessment report by the Department of Science and Technology, among the 16 lakes, 7 glacial lakes do not have a clear cut surface outlet; therefore, their moraine dams remain vulnerable. The potential hazard of avalanches and ice fall from hanging glaciers is recorded in 14 of these lakes. 7 lakes having been comprehensively evaluated so far. The comprehensive hazard assessment, appropriate lake-level reduction and development of lake-specific mitigation measures is underway. The infrastructure of Khangchendzonga National Park at buffer areas have been severely damaged during the GLOF, including Mundshithang nursery, Forest Guest house, roads, Green Lake trekking trail, Namprikdang nursery and many more (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
Changes in Physical & Chemical Regimes, Changes in Temperature Regimes, Changes in Precipitation & Hydrological Regime
(Glacial melting)
Inside site
, Throughout(>50%)
Outside site
The status and trends of glaciation within KNP do not appear to be subject to specific research, however studies have focussed on the Sikkim region overall. Glaciers in Sikkim have retreated in a range from 63.9 to 3.9 m yr−1 and lost a total area of ∼2.53% (0.08% yr−1). The intra-regional heterogeneity in glaciers retreat seems to be caused by topographical factors in the study area. A comparison of glacier retreats with other parts of the Himalayas reveals a declining gradient from the northwest to the eastern Himalayas, broadly (Kumar and Sharma, 2023). Furthermore, the number of glacial lakes in Sikkim increased from 309 to 440, with a total area expansion from 22.83 km2 to 30.71 km2 since 1990. Also, among the 51 glacial lakes susceptible to GLOFs, seven lakes were classified as highly hazardous and another six were deemed to pose high risk (Gaikwad et al. 2025).
Scientists from Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology (WIHG), Dehradun an autonomous research institute for the study of Geology of the Himalaya under the Department of Science and Technology, have found that glaciers in Sikkim are melting at a higher magnitude as compared to other Himalayan regions. The study published in Science of the Total Environment assessed the response of 23 glaciers of Sikkim to climate change for the period of 1991-2015 and revealed that glaciers in Sikkim have retreated and deglaciated significantly from 1991 to 2015. Small-sized glaciers in Sikkim are retreating while larger glaciers are thinning due to climate change (Department of Science and Technology, 2020).
The melting of glaciers and increase risk from glacial outbursts may impact on the scenic beauty and biodiversity of the area.
Scientists from Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology (WIHG), Dehradun an autonomous research institute for the study of Geology of the Himalaya under the Department of Science and Technology, have found that glaciers in Sikkim are melting at a higher magnitude as compared to other Himalayan regions. The study published in Science of the Total Environment assessed the response of 23 glaciers of Sikkim to climate change for the period of 1991-2015 and revealed that glaciers in Sikkim have retreated and deglaciated significantly from 1991 to 2015. Small-sized glaciers in Sikkim are retreating while larger glaciers are thinning due to climate change (Department of Science and Technology, 2020).
The melting of glaciers and increase risk from glacial outbursts may impact on the scenic beauty and biodiversity of the area.
Controversial hydropower development has occurred near the World Heritage site, accompanied by protests. Proposals for additional hydropower development have been brought forward, including in the recent past within the immediate vicinity of the site. While these project proposals have so far not been approved on social and environmental grounds, pressure to tap the hydropower potential is here to stay and likely to increase. There is also some concern about the military presence between the site and the Chinese border and possible demand for additional access infrastructure in this regard. Arguably the main concern in terms of "potential threats" are further anticipated direct and indirect impacts of climate change. The small-scale ecological mosaic along the altitudinal gradients creates countless small and sensitive ecological niches which provide critical habitat. It can be argued that this complex small-scale mosaicis particularly sensitive and vulnerable to climate change.
Renewable Energy
(Hydropower development)
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
Outside site
Hydropower development is an explicit objective of the government of Sikkim and large, controversial dams have been constructed on the Teesta and Rangit Rivers near KNP, with others being planned. At this stage, it seems unlikely that dam construction could be proposed within KNP, whereas this does not appear to be the case for proposals for developments in the buffer zone. In fact, past proposals are on record and appear to have been rejected on the grounds of environmental and social impacts (State Party of India, 2015). Any additional dam, including in the buffer zone, would inevitably come with impacts, including visual impacts - adding to the visual impacts induced by the existing dams.
Gathering, Harvesting & Controlling Terrestrial Plants & Fungi
(Harvesting of medicinal plants and other wild biodiversity products)
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
Outside site
Local resource use does occur and to some extent appears to be accepted despite the strict legal bans. The management plan (Chettri et al., 2002, 2005a; FEWMD, 2008, 2018) can reasonably be interpreted as granting corresponding options in its generic guidance. The lack of clarity is not considered a tangible and direct threat in terms of ecological impacts at this stage but rather a factor compromising the relationship between park management and local communities. While Chettri et. al (2013) found detrimental impacts of formally illegal resource use, such impacts are likely to be restricted to the relatively small easily accessible parts of the World Heritage site. Overall, the level of resource use, typically for subsistence purposes, does not appear to be a major threat at this stage, on the basis of available literature (e.g. Chettri et al., 2002, 2005b).
Changes in Temperature Regimes, Changes in Precipitation & Hydrological Regime
(Changing temperature and related precipitation regimes)
Inside site
, Throughout(>50%)
Outside site
The small-scale ecological mosaic along the altitudinal gradients creates countless small and sensitive ecological niches which provide critical habitat. It can be argued that this complex small-scale mosaicis particularly sensitive and vulnerable to climate change (Chettri et al., 2010; IUCN, 2016). Given this increased magnitude of warming with elevation in the eastern Himalayas (Tse-ring et al. 2010), climate change implications in this mountain landscape with altitudinal variations over small distances is likely to become more severe. Studies on the timberline and understanding of species distribution along the elevational gradient in the region offers a potential platform for long-term monitoring of climate induced changes, which will be helpful for planning management and conservation of biodiversity in KNP and the wider Himalayas (Pandey et al., 2018a; Rai et al., 2018).
However, Pandey et al. (2018b) note that the timberline, “being one of the most sensitive ecotones and an indicator of warming climate, requires further comprehensive studies in order to understand its dynamics”. In the Khangchendzonga Landscape, climate change has brought a strong concern for the disappearance of high altitude alpine species which have low adaptive capacity and highest exposure and could become trapped on mountain summits (Chettri et al. 2010). Similarly, the trans-Himalayan ungulates thriving along the northernmost boundary of the landscape, mainly along the rocky or grassy slopes in the transition zone, are the most vulnerable group whose population dynamics might get affected by climate change (Chanchani et al. 2010). Likewise, the threats to Tibetan gazelle (Procapra picticaudata) and southern kiang (Equus kiang polydon) in northern Sikkim are higher due to increasing trends in temperature. Given the predicted climate change and general impacts (Arrawatia et al. 2012), the threat may be considered significant.
Although Ravindranath et al. (2012) suggested that the "forest sector in Sikkim is unlikely to be adversely impacted by climate change in the short- and medium- term", recent studies on climate variables, such as evapotranspiration, shaping species distribution and diversity show that the changing climate in the Himalayas will affect forest community composition, survival and range (Sinha et al., 2018; Rana et al., 2019). Furthermore, given these future climatic scenarios, forest habitats may lose their effectiveness as refuge to threatened species (Chettri et al., 2018).
Nevertheless, the Wallace Initiative classifies Khangchendzonga National Park in the Republic of India as being in the top 1% of all non-marine protected areas in the World for projected overall biodiversity resilience to climate change at 4 °C warming above pre-industrial. Furthermore, the prediction is that the majority of the site's are will remain a climate refugia for most species (price et al. 2024).
However, Pandey et al. (2018b) note that the timberline, “being one of the most sensitive ecotones and an indicator of warming climate, requires further comprehensive studies in order to understand its dynamics”. In the Khangchendzonga Landscape, climate change has brought a strong concern for the disappearance of high altitude alpine species which have low adaptive capacity and highest exposure and could become trapped on mountain summits (Chettri et al. 2010). Similarly, the trans-Himalayan ungulates thriving along the northernmost boundary of the landscape, mainly along the rocky or grassy slopes in the transition zone, are the most vulnerable group whose population dynamics might get affected by climate change (Chanchani et al. 2010). Likewise, the threats to Tibetan gazelle (Procapra picticaudata) and southern kiang (Equus kiang polydon) in northern Sikkim are higher due to increasing trends in temperature. Given the predicted climate change and general impacts (Arrawatia et al. 2012), the threat may be considered significant.
Although Ravindranath et al. (2012) suggested that the "forest sector in Sikkim is unlikely to be adversely impacted by climate change in the short- and medium- term", recent studies on climate variables, such as evapotranspiration, shaping species distribution and diversity show that the changing climate in the Himalayas will affect forest community composition, survival and range (Sinha et al., 2018; Rana et al., 2019). Furthermore, given these future climatic scenarios, forest habitats may lose their effectiveness as refuge to threatened species (Chettri et al., 2018).
Nevertheless, the Wallace Initiative classifies Khangchendzonga National Park in the Republic of India as being in the top 1% of all non-marine protected areas in the World for projected overall biodiversity resilience to climate change at 4 °C warming above pre-industrial. Furthermore, the prediction is that the majority of the site's are will remain a climate refugia for most species (price et al. 2024).
Roads, Trails & Railroads
(Military activity in the border area north of KNP)
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
Outside site
The northern border of Sikkim coincides with the international border between India and China, resulting in an important military presence on both sides of the border. Consequently, there is access infrastructure and potentially a demand for additional access infrastructure in the future. The recent conflict between India and China has increased the presence and movement of armies in the adjacent areas, with increased risk if conflict is not contained (IUCN Consultation, 2020). The degree of this threat may change as per the changing dynamics of the Indo-China relationship.
Involvement of stakeholders and rightsholders, including indigenous peoples and local communities, in decision-making processes
The area today constituting the mixed World Heritage site has a long and well-documented history of human habitation and use, including by Dokpa, Bhutia, Lepcha and Nepali people (State Party of India, 2015; Lachungpa, 2009). The national park provided a temporary safety net for Tibetan refugees since the late 1960s (State Party of India, 2015). Today, human settlements and consumptive resource use are not legally permitted within KNP, including livestock grazing, and harvesting of timber and non-timber forest products. Some settlements were therefore relocated. This legacy and legal framework has strained the relationships with local communities and continues to do so even though there appears to be some flexibility to accept some sustainable use at the local level. The livelihood options of local communities are very limited and to a very high degree depend on local natural resources (Chettri et al., 2002; Krishna et al., 2002; Chettri and Sharma, 2006). At the same time, local communities bear the burden of some human-wildlife conflicts, such as livestock predation (IUCN, 2016), crop raids and conflicts with black bears during acorn and bamboo collection in their habitats (Bashir et al., 2018), as well as attacks from ferral dogs (IUCN consultation, 2024; State Party of India, 2023). It is important to recall that KNP is inscribed as a mixed World Heritage site. It can reasonably be argued that traditional resource use and associated knowledge and practices are important parts of the local culture and that therefore the categorical ban of any resource use raises important question marks requiring attention. A new transboundary Kangchenjunga Landscape Conservation and Development Initiative (including the entire state of Sikkim) facilitated by ICIMOD has been implemented since 2016, with the aim of conserving and managing the landscape for sustained ecosystem services that contribute to the livelihoods of the local people (Gurung et al., 2019).
In the current scenario the Eco Development Committee who are actively involved in protection and management works consists of members from the local community and stakeholders. The important decisions made concerning the park are in alignment with the regular Gram Sabha consultancy. In addition, the Himal Rakshaks who are voluntary guards, from the fringe villages assists the KNP division in habitat management activities like patrolling, setting up of salt licks, camera trap installation and plantation drives. The park relies on inputs and participation from the local communities as they are directly and indirectly affected and become responsible for the decisions taken by the management concerning the park. It is the integration of the efforts from the local communities, stakeholders, rightsholders and the park managers in totality which makes the protection and management more effective (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
In the current scenario the Eco Development Committee who are actively involved in protection and management works consists of members from the local community and stakeholders. The important decisions made concerning the park are in alignment with the regular Gram Sabha consultancy. In addition, the Himal Rakshaks who are voluntary guards, from the fringe villages assists the KNP division in habitat management activities like patrolling, setting up of salt licks, camera trap installation and plantation drives. The park relies on inputs and participation from the local communities as they are directly and indirectly affected and become responsible for the decisions taken by the management concerning the park. It is the integration of the efforts from the local communities, stakeholders, rightsholders and the park managers in totality which makes the protection and management more effective (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
Legal framework
The legal framework governing KNP, primarily the Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972 provides a strong framework from a strict protection perspective (Government of India, 1972). The Act is crucially important as the decisive legal foundation to prevent major developments in the World Heritage site. The Park is equivalent to an IUCN category II protected area. The KNP also comes under the purview of the Forest conservation Act (1980) which restricts the use of forest land for non-forest purposes. Noteworthy, further legislation includes India’s Places of Worship Act which regulates access rights for religious and spiritual purposes. Therefore by coming under the purview of national laws and by being recognized as a World Heritage site, the park is well protected.
Governance arrangements
The entire property is state-owned. The park management is overseen by the Government of Sikkim, Forest & Environment Department. In Sikkim, as with the rest of India, the Concurrent List (List III of the Seventh Schedule) outlines subjects where both the Union (Central Government) and the State (Sikkim State Government) have the power to legislate. This means that for these subjects, both the Indian Parliament and the Sikkim Legislative Assembly can make laws, but in case of conflict, the central law generally prevails unless the state law has received presidential assent. Forest as a subject is put in the list III (concurrent list) of the 7th schedule of the Indian constitution. There is direct exchange and coordination with MoEFCC, Government of India through programs like Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitat (IDWH), Green India Mission (GIM), CAMPA (State Party of India, 2023).
Integration into local, regional and national planning systems (including sea/landscape connectivity)
The World Heritage site shares a long border with Nepal along its western side. There are working level contacts, including at the academic and NGO level. These contacts, however, do not amount to a (desirable) systematic coordination or cooperation. The small stretch of the boundary shared with the border to China’s Autonomous Region of Tibet is inaccessible and thus naturally protected with no indications of conservation concerns stemming from across the border. An overall framework and platform to discuss and promote regional transboundary efforts is offered and promoted by ICIMOD, as detailed in section 7 of this assessment (see also Sharma and Chettri, 2005; Chettri et al., 2008, 2011; ICIMOD, WCD, GBPNIHESD, RECAST 2017a; Kandel et al., 2016). To the south and east, KNP is adjacent to a buffer zone, which adds to the protection of the site and boasts important natural and cultural values in its own right. The current status of much of the buffer zone as "Reserved Forest" (State Party of India, 2015, 2023) meets common protected area definitions implying that the buffer zone has an important underpinning. This, however, could change relatively easily, for example to permit hydropower development if corresponding permits are granted. The World Heritage site would benefit from a more systematic consideration of the relationship between KNP, the buffer zone and the functional links to several important protected areas in the immediate vicinity of the site, as suggested by ICIMOD, WCD, GBPNIHESD, RECAST (2017a). It is clear from the very location of Sikkim and KNP that conservation and management undoubtedly benefit from a vision and approach beyond national and state borders. At the level of Sikkim, there are efforts to harmonize planning at the state level in various areas. According to the nomination (State Party of India, 2015), these include (i) the Forestry and Environment Mission Sikkim (2015); (ii) the State Policy of Environment, Forests, and Land Use (2000); and (iii) the Sikkim Biodiversity Action Plan (2012) among others. A national level biosphere reserve likewise serves as an attempt to harmonize the park with its surroundings. Despite this promising framework, there is room for further integration between sectors and administrative units at and beyond the regional level. Specific conservation priority-setting exercises, such as the work by Ganguli-Lachungpa et al. (2011) can inform a regional land use planning approach which systematically takes nature conservation into account.
Boundaries
Khangchendzonga National Park is the core zone of Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve (KBR) hence, the buffer zone and transitional zone of KBR act as the buffer zone of this World Heritage Property. The community residing near this property is aware of the zonation and the boundary of the property (State Party of India, 2024).
Where the boundaries coincide with India's international border there is obviously no room for re-considering boundaries on the part of Sikkim in India. Some of the area between the international border (Nepal) and the northern boundary of KNP might qualify as a possible extension area from a technical perspective. Security considerations are likely to override such considerations, which is beyond the scope of this assessment. There might be room for extensions to the south and east of KNP, which would have the conservation benefit of adding particularly valuable and vulnerable forest types in lower elevations that are hardly represented in KNP or not represented at all. In a study on conservation priorities for plant species in Sikkim, Manish and Pandit (2019) found that the existing protected areas in the region are inadequate in conserving the endemic plant diversity either in the current or future climate scenarios and suggested expansion of the protected area network to ensure meaningful conservation goals and mitigate the effects of ensuing climate change. Strategic additions may also help to secure connectivity across the larger landscape, including for flagship species like the Red Panda. The areas of potential boundary extensions largely coincide with the limited areas accessible to local communities, which may restrict the feasibility of further extensions. It is also not clear what the exact conservation status of these areas is. As encouraged by the World Heritage Committee in its inscription decision, a specific assessment, in line with the encouragement expressed in the inscription decision, would help to better understand the options, costs, benefits and obstacles. There is an initiative taken by the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) on linking the World Heritage site with corridors within Sikkim as well as with Nepal (Khangchendzonga Conservation Area) using a landscape approach and developing strategic documents endorsed by Nepal, India and Bhutan (Gurung et al., 2019).
Where the boundaries coincide with India's international border there is obviously no room for re-considering boundaries on the part of Sikkim in India. Some of the area between the international border (Nepal) and the northern boundary of KNP might qualify as a possible extension area from a technical perspective. Security considerations are likely to override such considerations, which is beyond the scope of this assessment. There might be room for extensions to the south and east of KNP, which would have the conservation benefit of adding particularly valuable and vulnerable forest types in lower elevations that are hardly represented in KNP or not represented at all. In a study on conservation priorities for plant species in Sikkim, Manish and Pandit (2019) found that the existing protected areas in the region are inadequate in conserving the endemic plant diversity either in the current or future climate scenarios and suggested expansion of the protected area network to ensure meaningful conservation goals and mitigate the effects of ensuing climate change. Strategic additions may also help to secure connectivity across the larger landscape, including for flagship species like the Red Panda. The areas of potential boundary extensions largely coincide with the limited areas accessible to local communities, which may restrict the feasibility of further extensions. It is also not clear what the exact conservation status of these areas is. As encouraged by the World Heritage Committee in its inscription decision, a specific assessment, in line with the encouragement expressed in the inscription decision, would help to better understand the options, costs, benefits and obstacles. There is an initiative taken by the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) on linking the World Heritage site with corridors within Sikkim as well as with Nepal (Khangchendzonga Conservation Area) using a landscape approach and developing strategic documents endorsed by Nepal, India and Bhutan (Gurung et al., 2019).
Overlapping international designations
Established in 2000, the nationally designated Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve (KBR) includes the KNP as its core zone with buffer and transition zones following the usual configuration for biosphere reserves. The World Heritage buffer zone is made up of parts of the KBR buffer and transition zones and covers a total area of 114,712 ha (IUCN, 2016). World Heritage site management authorities, Sikkim Forest Department, regularly communicates with the focal point of Biosphere Reserves (State Party of India, 2023). In the latest Management effectiveness evaluation study (Mohan, 2020) a need for developing a comprehensive management plan addressing concerns of both KNP and KBR was pointed out. Khechodpalri Wetland, one of the cultural sites, which falls in the KBR region has been designated as the 1st RAMSAR Site on 15-07-2024, in the state. The extent to which management is effective across the Ramsar site and World Heritage site is unclear.
Implementation of World Heritage Committee decisions and recommendations
The only applicable Committee decision is the inscription decision (40 COM 8B.17), which encourages and requests the State Party to embark on several further efforts. Concretely, the Committee encouraged the State Party to address the actionable points suggested in the management effectiveness evaluation and further encourages the State Party to "consider the progressive addition of suitable lower altitude areas" and to "foster greater collaboration between Khangchendzonga National Park (India) and Khangchendzonga Conservation Area (Nepal)", noting the potential for a future transboundary World Heritage extension (World Heritage Committee, 2016). In view of encouraging the collaboration between Khangchendzonga National Park (India) and Khangchendzonga Conservation Area (Nepal), efforts to sustain working level contacts between the two parties is ongoing. In 2025, a knowledge sharing programme was organised by Khangchendzonga National Park for the Nepalese delegates of Kanchenjunga Conservation Area. Further recommendations mostly refer to the cultural dimension of the mixed site. While equally important and deserving full consideration, the further consideration of cultural heritage is beyond the scope of this exercise.
Climate action
While beyond the direct scope of the State Party, the current need for management in such areas is limited in the first place, specifically in terms of climate change mitigation efforts. The fact that Khangchendzonga National Park (KNP) is contiguous with a large protected area in neighbouring Nepal (Khangchendzonga Conservation Area) likewise positively contributes to addressing possible external threats. In terms of climate change preparedness several measures have been adopted by the Department including regular plantations carried out under various government schemes (IUCN Consultation, 2025). The Sikkim State Disaster Management Authority (SSDMA) is the nodal body for disaster management, focusing on prevention, mitigation, preparedness, and response. Recent events, like the 2023 GLOF, highlight the urgent need for enhanced risk assessment, early warning systems, and community-based preparedness. There are ongoing studies of glacial retreat and the risk of GLOFs, however the integration of the findings into management actions is unknown. Furthermore, the Wallace Initiative classifies Khangchendzonga National Park in the Republic of India as being in the top 1% of all non-marine protected areas in the World for projected overall biodiversity resilience to climate change at 4 °C warming above pre-industrial, however notes the importance of adaptation measures at the site level (Price et al. 2024).
At the national level, the Green India Mission (GIM), officially known as the National Mission for a Green India, is one of eight national missions under India's National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC). It focuses on protecting, restoring, and enhancing India's forest cover, while also responding to climate change. The mission aims to increase forest and tree cover, improve the quality of existing forests, and enhance ecosystem services like biodiversity, water, and biomass.
At the national level, the Green India Mission (GIM), officially known as the National Mission for a Green India, is one of eight national missions under India's National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC). It focuses on protecting, restoring, and enhancing India's forest cover, while also responding to climate change. The mission aims to increase forest and tree cover, improve the quality of existing forests, and enhance ecosystem services like biodiversity, water, and biomass.
Management plan and overall management system
The Forest, Environment and Wildlife Management Department, Government of Sikkim (FEWMD) is the management authority, represented by its Khangchendzonga National Park (KNP) administration unit. The management plan provides a vision to
conserve key ecosystem and landscape attributes whilst promoting recreational opportunities, cultural and educational values as well as the advancement of scientific knowledge and strategies which advance the well-being of local communities. The updated Management Plan of KNP-KBR (FEWMD, 2018) formulated in collaboration with Wildlife Institute of India produces comprehensive data with fresher approaches, and rectification of previous shortcomings related to the management of the park. It is valid for 10 years (2018-2028) and can be revisited after a period of 5 years (State Party of India, 2023). There are opportunities to strengthen the ties between institutions, sectors and stakeholders to further integrate culture and nature. To safeguard the property, cooperation with Nepal to develop a complimentary World Heritage site could be a further option to strengthen the site's integrity (Gurung et al., 2019).
conserve key ecosystem and landscape attributes whilst promoting recreational opportunities, cultural and educational values as well as the advancement of scientific knowledge and strategies which advance the well-being of local communities. The updated Management Plan of KNP-KBR (FEWMD, 2018) formulated in collaboration with Wildlife Institute of India produces comprehensive data with fresher approaches, and rectification of previous shortcomings related to the management of the park. It is valid for 10 years (2018-2028) and can be revisited after a period of 5 years (State Party of India, 2023). There are opportunities to strengthen the ties between institutions, sectors and stakeholders to further integrate culture and nature. To safeguard the property, cooperation with Nepal to develop a complimentary World Heritage site could be a further option to strengthen the site's integrity (Gurung et al., 2019).
Law enforcement
Law enforcement is facilitated by the rugged terrain, which severely decreases the risks and intensity of illegal activities throughout most of KNP. In the more accessible lower elevations, enforcement does take place, supported by volunteer rangers and non-governmental organizations (IUCN, 2016). Even though the recent management effectiveness evaluation reports understaffing, the current overall situation is assessed as effective (Mohan et al., 2020). It is clear that rising visitor numbers would have to be accompanied by a corresponding rise in management effort. The legal framework and thus also the law enforcement efforts in the park are governed by the following: Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972, CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora),CMS (Convention on Migratory Species), Van (Sanrakshan Evam Samvardhan ) Adhiniyam 1980, The Biological Diversity Act (2002).
Sustainable finance
Funding primarily relies on a Governmental budget and the revenue generated (as Local Trust Fund,LTF) in the park through ecotourism activities which is a sustainable financial source to an extent. The site would benefit from an increased budget and diversified sources would help increase the resilience of the financing model in the long term. Given that KNP was explicitly recognized as a "mixed" World Heritage site for its extraordinary cultural and natural significance, it would seem adequate to eventually move towards an integrated approach to financing, allocation and other financial decision-making bringing together the various involved institutions - to the degree possible. Also according to the latest Periodic Report submitted by the State Party, available budget is inadequate for basic management needs and presents a serious constraint. The existing source of funding is also not secure, as there is a need to apply for funds yearly with no permanent source of fundings (State Party of India, 2023).
Staff capacity, training and development
While acknowledging high staff motivation, the recent management effectiveness evaluation also suggested limited human resources, quantitatively and in terms of capacity (Mohan et al., 2020). Recent management practices have demonstrated significant progress in enhancing capacity development and personnel training. Comprehensive training in a range of skills (Human Wildlife Conflict Management, Animal Rescue, Wildlife Laws, Modern tools and technology etc.) to enhance capabilities which serves as an incentive to invest in capacity development, is previewed in the updated Management Plan (FEWMD, 2018; IUCN consultation, 2024). Room for improvement is indicated in the latest Periodic Report as well (State Party of India, 2023).
Education and interpretation programmes
KNP benefits from being exceptionally "visible" in the most literal sense of the word. The place and its meaning is present and undoubtedly an integral part of the local and regional identity. In this sense, KNP "needs no introduction". The local perception of the place is not primarily shaped by the formal protected area status but has much older and deeper roots. Thereby, the cultural, spiritual and religious significance exceeds the depth and reach any protected area can hope to promote and communicate. There are many opportunities to link the cultural and religious respect to formal conservation efforts. At the more superficial level of site interpretation for tourism, there are laudable efforts, such as the visitor centre in Yuksom. An Interpretation centre is under construction at the western part of the property. The need to have one more in the Northern part of the property has been also indicated (State Party of India, 2023). There is also a plan of providing mandatory audio video interpretative informative show before entering the property. To enhance stakeholder and youth education, an annual program is organized on World Heritage Day every year, including initiatives like the World Heritage Volunteer Programme. Additionally, educational efforts are supported through strategically placed posters and signage that focus on the conservation of endangered species and their habitats (IUCN consultation, 2024).
Tourism and visitation management
Tourism and visitation is in its infancy and still very localized, thereby requiring localized management attention only at this stage. There are some signs of local impacts (IUCN, 2016) and additional resources would help to address and better manage those. The need for more careful and intense management will rise if the State of Sikkim is to follow up on its stated intention to promote tourism by improving access and by removing administrative obstacles. The management plan acknowledges the need to prevent impacts and to ensure local benefits (FEWMD, 2008). There is currently a strategy to manage visitors and tourism activity, however due to limited human resources, there are some deficiencies in implementation (State Party of India, 2023).
Sustainable use
There is evidence of some flexibility at the local level, for example regarding the collection of medicinal plants for auto-consumption. At the same time, the categorical legal ban on use, including grazing is at odds with the longstanding interaction between herders and their natural environment (IUCN, 2016). While it is clear that there are no easy solutions and the legal framework is likely to remain in place in the foreseeable future, further analysis of options to understand levels of use which would not affect the nature conservation values is encouraged. However, the present Government is looking to review and adjust the policy based on assessment reports, showing some hope for a solution to the issue (IUCN Consultation, 2020). Presently, the Bonafide collection of NTFPs are permitted from the plantation areas in the buffer zone.The implementation of sustainable ecotourism activities provides alternative livelihood opportunities for the local communities of the fringe areas (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
Monitoring
There is considerable monitoring ongoing, however it is not directed towards management needs nor improving the understanding of the property’s OUV, for which key indicators have not been defined yet (State Party of India, 2023). Sikkim's Forest, Environment and Wildlife Management Department (FEWMD) has the primary monitoring responsibility (State Party of India, 2015). The nomination notes a somewhat selective effort using species indicators (population size and trend), forest cover and incident frequency (e.g. poaching, human-wildlife conflict, encroachment) and water quality at intervals ranging from one to five years. Some initiatives were taken for monitoring for vegetation and species levels (Chettri et al., 2002; Sathyakumar et al., 2014). However, research and monitoring has been less of a priority even in the management plan. Hence, there is room to expand the monitoring system with sustained financing support and in particular to consider climate change under the umbrella of broader efforts at the state level. Also, in the latest management effectiveness evaluation the need to develop a baseline for subsequent monitoring has been pointed out, as well as that immediate actions are required to conduct a census of all the threatened species reported from the site (Mohan et al., 2020). The transboundary initiative encourages the setting of long term monitoring stations for better understanding and science based decision making (Gurung et al., 2019). Likewise, the monitoring system described in the nomination appears limited in terms of the human dimension. Especially in light of the explicit recognition of globally exceptional cultural and natural values moving towards more integrated monitoring approaches are desirable.
Research
It is important to acknowledge that the location and terrain of, and access to, KNP render any field work not only challenging in terms of logistics and security but very costly. Substantial effort was made by G B Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development as a pioneering work, and the landscape has a long history of botanical research that dates back to the 1840s (Kandel et al., 2019). A wealth of information is also available from sophisticated wildlife research under the auspices of the Wildlife Institute of India (see for example State Party of India, 2015, and IUCN, 2016 and references cited therein). The fact that the nomination dossier did not take full advantage of important and readily available research could indicate a certain disconnect between research and management. The Government of Sikkim has invested in excellent information services on biodiversity (Arrawatia et al., 2011) and climate change (Arrawatia et al., 2012) at the state level, much of which is highly relevant to KNP. Moreover, the longstanding work by ICIMOD across the region and specifically in the transboundary "Kangchenjunga Landscape" covers ecological, social and policy issues and is readily available on their webpage (ICIMOD, 2020). However, as noted by Kandel et al. (2019), although numerous one-time studies of the Kangchenjunga landscape exist, comprehensive, systematic studies and long-term monitoring are still needed to understand how natural and anthropogenic drivers cause changes in the landscape.
Effectiveness of management system and governance in addressing threats outside the site
In terms of (potential) external threats, it is important to recall the border setting and the extremely rugged high altitude terrain. Large adjacent areas in neighbouring countries are extremely remote and inaccessible. While beyond the direct scope of the State Party, the current need for management in such areas is limited in the first place, specifically in terms of climate change mitigation efforts and GLOFs. The fact that Khangchendzonga National Park (KNP) is contiguous with a large protected area in neighbouring Nepal (Khangchendzonga Conservation Area) likewise poses challenges to addressing possible external threats.
The buffer zone and the national level biosphere reserve are important efforts to address the relationships between KNP and its immediate surroundings. The pressure on natural resources in those surroundings is a matter of concern, whereas increasing the protection status shall have positive outcomes. While there is no current sign of alarming threats to KNP stemming from these adjacent areas, continuous monitoring and, if needed, management responses to emerging threats are required.
The buffer zone and the national level biosphere reserve are important efforts to address the relationships between KNP and its immediate surroundings. The pressure on natural resources in those surroundings is a matter of concern, whereas increasing the protection status shall have positive outcomes. While there is no current sign of alarming threats to KNP stemming from these adjacent areas, continuous monitoring and, if needed, management responses to emerging threats are required.
Effectiveness of management system and governance in addressing threats inside the site
The management effectiveness of KNP went through several management effectiveness evaluations, first by by Oli et al. (2013) then by the Wildlife Institute of India as part of a major assessment of 125 Indian protected areas (Bhardway, 2015) in 2015 and the latest in 2020 (Mohan et al., 2020). Assessments draw upon the widely used IUCN MEE Framework and the results were average and can be summarized as follows:
In the latest assessment the overall ranking is ‘very good’ indicating an improvement from the previous assessment ranking the site as ‘good’. A number of weaknesses have been pointed out including (i) limited personnel trained in wildlife management; (ii) a lack of a systematic assessment of conservation values and threats and adequate monitoring; and (iii) inadequate human and financial resources. The management effectiveness evaluation source offers useful and tangible advice to further improve the management effectiveness of KNP and the World Heritage Committee's decision in inscribing the site encourages follow up action from the management effectiveness evaluation across several areas, specifically in terms of harmonizing the management of the World Heritage site and Biosphere Reserve, developing a solid monitoring system and reinforcing human and financial resources. Some of the weaknesses in the latest evaluation echoes previous results noted may be considered to be significant warranting prioritized action, however, on balance the management effectiveness is assessed as mostly effective.
In the latest assessment the overall ranking is ‘very good’ indicating an improvement from the previous assessment ranking the site as ‘good’. A number of weaknesses have been pointed out including (i) limited personnel trained in wildlife management; (ii) a lack of a systematic assessment of conservation values and threats and adequate monitoring; and (iii) inadequate human and financial resources. The management effectiveness evaluation source offers useful and tangible advice to further improve the management effectiveness of KNP and the World Heritage Committee's decision in inscribing the site encourages follow up action from the management effectiveness evaluation across several areas, specifically in terms of harmonizing the management of the World Heritage site and Biosphere Reserve, developing a solid monitoring system and reinforcing human and financial resources. Some of the weaknesses in the latest evaluation echoes previous results noted may be considered to be significant warranting prioritized action, however, on balance the management effectiveness is assessed as mostly effective.
Vast parts of the World Heritage site find themselves in a very privileged position of an unusually high degree of natural protection. Most areas are rarely, if ever, visited. This largely compensates for a modest staffing level by surface area. The management is overall effective in addressing the current challenges within Khangchendzonga National Park. There are nevertheless a number of concerns noted, including the lack of secure funding, the absence of a climate action plan and the legal restrictions on local resource use.
Good practice examples
1)This assessment proposes the nomination process, including the IUCN and ICOMOS evaluations, as a constructive learning process and in this sense a best practice example (IUCN, 2016). The nomination effort motivated the State Party at the national and state level to carefully consider the cultural and natural heritage dimensions. The nomination process facilitated corresponding discussions bringing together a broad range of stakeholders and views.
While this debate should ideally have started much earlier on in the process, this learning process could be reflected in the further follow-up that was explicitly encouraged by the World Heritage Committee in its inscription decision. It is hoped that the inscription as a mixed World Heritage site will continue to spark constructive debate about the intricate linkages between "culture" and "nature" within and around a globally significant national park.
2) Another good practice example is the involvement of youth and NGOs in the monitoring, management and waste management (State Party of India, 2023). Local youth work voluntarily as Himal Rakshak (Himal means Mountains and Rakshak means Saviour) helping with the patrolling of the property, management of visitors, garbage management, etc. Local NGOs collaborate in the garbage management through a system where all trash carried by the visitor is to brought back out of the property for proper disposal. Before entering a list is prepared as to what is taken along by individual such as water bottle, food wrapper, etc.
While this debate should ideally have started much earlier on in the process, this learning process could be reflected in the further follow-up that was explicitly encouraged by the World Heritage Committee in its inscription decision. It is hoped that the inscription as a mixed World Heritage site will continue to spark constructive debate about the intricate linkages between "culture" and "nature" within and around a globally significant national park.
2) Another good practice example is the involvement of youth and NGOs in the monitoring, management and waste management (State Party of India, 2023). Local youth work voluntarily as Himal Rakshak (Himal means Mountains and Rakshak means Saviour) helping with the patrolling of the property, management of visitors, garbage management, etc. Local NGOs collaborate in the garbage management through a system where all trash carried by the visitor is to brought back out of the property for proper disposal. Before entering a list is prepared as to what is taken along by individual such as water bottle, food wrapper, etc.
Majestic landscape of stunning visual beauty
Good
Trend
Stable
It would be difficult to think of any direct human-induced change fundamentally altering the visual backdrop of the rugged and extremely high peaks. These areas of the site are among the least accessible and most inhospitable places on earth. The dense forest cover, often reaching altitudes well above 4,000 m.a.s.l. is intact with no indication of dramatic changes in the short run. Eventually, climate change through melting glaciers (e.g. Kumar and Sharma, 2023; Gaikwad et al. 2025) and perhaps major earthquakes could impact on the visual beauty of Khangchendzonga National Park (KNP). It can be argued that the existing hydropower dams in the vicinity of the site compromise some of the spectacular views.
Exceptional habitat mosaic along an extraordinary altitudinal gradient
Low Concern
Trend
Stable
The vertical gradient will remain unchanged in the foreseeable future and will remain the basis for a remarkable habitat mosaic. A distinctive feature is the altitudinal forest continuum, ranging from subtropical and Wet-temperate broad-leaved forests, through through temperate conifers and rhododendron belts, to sub-alpine forest, scrublands, meadow and snowfields, contributing to a richly textured and seasonally dynamic landscape. Climate change is anticipated to induce change in ways that are today largely speculative. While emphasizing the need to better understand and to the degree possible respond, this value is not assessed as currently being under acute and tangible threat, also noting that the Wallace Initiative classifies Khangchendzonga National Park as being in the top 1% of all non-marine protected areas in the World for projected overall biodiversity resilience to climate change at 4 °C warming above pre-industrial levels (Price et al. 2025).
High plant and animal species richness
Good
Trend
Stable
Currently, evidence indicates that KNP continues to make an important contribution to species conservation. The few existing limitations stem from the inherent constraints of the protected area approach. For example, the long term survival of large mammalian apex predators like the Snow Leopard which require extensive ranges and exhibits low populations densities and reproductive rates, will eventually depend on coordinated conservation efforts beyond individual protected areas and broader transboundary landscapes. Anticipated climate change adds complexity and uncertainty, including in relation to park’s the impressive floral diversity. Recent monitoring in 2025 confirms the continued presence of flagship species- a camera trap survey was conducted by WWF India & Forest and Environmental Department Government of Sikkim, under the Snow Leopard Population Assessment of India (SPAI2) and estimated the snow leopards population in Sikkim to be 21 individuals. The state-wise density of snow leopards in the state was 0.40 (0.11) snow leopards/100 km² (95% CI = 0.23 to 0.69 snow leopards/100 km²) (SPAI2025). These results confirm the continued importance of KNP as a core habitat for this elusive apex predator, though the low density underscores the importance of maintaining connectivity with adjoining landscapes.
Critical refuge for endemic, rare and threatened flora and fauna
Low Concern
Trend
Stable
KNP continues to effectively serves as a critical refuge, for a wide array of endemic, rare and threatened species. Located within the Eastern Himalaya one of the worlds most biologically rich and globally recognized biodiversity hotspots the park harbours species with restricted ranges and specialized ecological needs, including the Snow Leopard, Red Panda, Himalayan Tahr and satyr tragopan as well as a wide range of endemic plant species KNP falls within two distinct biogeographic provinces: 2C (Sikkim Himalaya) and 1C (Trans-Himalaya) as per the Wildlife Institute of India’s classification’s. The park’s rugged, mountainous terrain—characterized by steep valleys, glaciers, alpine meadows, and deep forested gorges—creates a largely inaccessible and undisturbed landscape. These natural barriers, combined with strong legal protection, strict management, and the absence of human settlements, enhance its role as a conservation stronghold. A 2025 camera trap survey conducted by WWF India and the Forest and Environment Department, Government of Sikkim, under the Snow Leopard Population Assessment of India (SPAI), estimated the snow leopard population in Sikkim at 21 individuals, with a density of 0.40 (±0.11) snow leopards per 100 km² (95% CI: 0.23–0.69), underscoring the species’ low density and the need for large, connected landscapes to ensure its long-term viability. In addition, a recent rapid biodiversity survey report VII study reported the presence of Mahonia sikkimensis which is considered as regionally endemic species to the Eastern Himalayas within the oak forest of the park (IUCN Consultation, 2025). The park is also increasingly recognized as a major hub for butterfly diversity which recorded 189 species of butterflies found in KNP. KNP coincides with an Important Bird Area (IBA) which is thought to harbour 127 bird species of conservation concern and is part of an Endemic Bird Area (EBA) which contains a particularly rich assemblage of restricted range bird species, including the genus Sphenocichla. Among the most conspicuous bird species are the many large birds of prey, several species of Old World Vultures and numerous pheasant species, including the spectacular Blood Pheasant (LC), the State Bird of Sikkim. The Lhonak Valley is a Trans-Himalayan grassland, which is partially included in KNP and the only known breeding site of the Black-necked or Tibetan Crane (VU) in the Eastern Himalayas as well as an important stopover for migratory waterbirds (IUCN Consultation, 2025). The Wallace Initiative classifies Khangchendzonga National Park as being in the top 1% of all non-marine protected areas in the World for projected overall biodiversity resilience to climate change at 4 °C warming above pre-industrial levels. Furthermore, in the various modelled climate change predictions, the large percentage of the WH site are remains a climatic refuge for various taxonomic groups (Price et al. 2024).
Assessment of the current state and trend of World Heritage values
Stable
The many nature conservation values are identified, respected and well-protected. The equally important and intricately linked cultural significance adds to the effective protection of the values. The majestic landscape, altitudinal habitat continuum, and exceptional biodiversity and exceptional biodiversity remain largely intact and functional. A 2025 camera trap-based population survey conducted by WWF-India & Forest and Environment Department of Sikkim under SPAI estimated 21 Snow leopards in Sikkim reaffirming the park’s role as a key habitat for apex predators. However the low density and wide ranging behaviour of such species highlights the need for landscape-level connectivity and coordinated regional conservation. The site also continues to support significant floral and faunal diversity, including regionally endemic species like Mahonia sikkimensis and a recorded 189 species of butterflies. The Lhonak Valley, partially within the park, remains the only known breeding site of the black-necked crane in the Eastern Himalayas. Despite the overall good understanding of the nature conservation values and helpful recent research efforts, important data gaps remain. As an overarching concern that cannot be addressed at the site level, climate change casts some doubts about the longer term future of some of KNP's natural values.
Assessment of the current state and trend of other important biodiversity values
Good
Stable
KNP holds the recognized World Heritage values under natural criteria (vii) and (x) which relates to plant and animal diversity. The continued presence of threatened mammals, high-altitude birds, and regionally endemic plants and invertebrates underscores the park’s biodiversity significance. However, continued monitoring and conservation coordination remain essential to sustaining these values.
Assessment of the current state and trend of other important values
Good
Stable
Culturally, KNP remains a living landscape with active pilgrimage routes, rituals, and oral traditions centered around sacred sites like Mount Khangchendzonga, Tholung Monastery (Dzongu Region).
Additional information
Collection of wild plants and mushrooms
Collection of wild plants and mushrooms has been an integral part of local livelihood systems at all times of human habitation of Sikkim with important benefits for not just food but also medicinal purposes (Borah et al., 2011). While collection within the national park is today a somewhat grey area, it continues to take place and play an important role (Chettri et al., 2011).
The above factors do not appear to be decisive in the case of Khangchendzonga National Park (KNP), with the exception of climate change, the expected impacts of which on collection of wild plants and mushrooms are beyond the scope of this exercise. Rather, the main concern lies in the lack of regularity clarity in terms permissible level s of local resource use. In the wording of the IUCN evaluation, "there is a contradiction between the legal ban on any resource use, including livestock grazing, and a vision of “ensuring sustainable flow of resources for traditional livelihood” and an objective “to allow controlled use of the Park and its resources by local people” both of which are stated in the management plan" (IUCN, 2016). In addition, moderate presence of invasive species has been recorded in the lower elevation belts of KNP such as Ageratina Adenophora, Chromolaena odorata and Lantana camara Some initiative to look at the status of invasive species would add value as this has been reported as a major issue in majority of protected areas in the region (Xu et al., 2019).
Livestock grazing areas
Similar to the collection of wild biodiversity products, mostly mobile livestock keeping - and thus grazing - have been and continue to be integral elements of traditional livelihood systems and cultures. It is important to note that livestock keeping serves important functions beyond food, for example the provision of leather, bones and wool, livestock is also related to social status and may serve as a "bank" for owners by constituting a source of income when needed.
Among the above factors, none appears to be particularly relevant at this stage, perhaps with the exception of climate change which may induce major shifts in the ecosystems, including the vegetation. Comparable to the collection of wild biodiversity, there is a lack of clarity between a formal ban on grazing in place and the stated management objectives for KNP to ensure "sustainable flow of resources for traditional livelihood” and to permit "controlled use of the Park and its resources by local people” (FEWMD, 2008).
History and tradition,
Wilderness and iconic features,
Sacred natural sites or landscapes,
Sacred or symbolic plants or animals,
Cultural identity and sense of belonging
It is not excessive to suggest that KNP "ticks all the boxes" under this benefit type. As acknowledged by way of the inscription as a "mixed" World Heritage site, KNP is the center of a major sacred mountain area of enormous cultural, religious and spiritual importance across cultures and borders.
KNP embodies profound cultural and spiritual significance as recognized by its designation as a “mixed” World Heritage site, KNP is the heart of a sacred mountain landscape. Sacred sites such as Mount Khangchendzonga, Tholung Monastery and the Dzongu Region are tied to living practices including seasonal rituals, pilgrimage routes and oral traditions that remain vibrant today. As such, the above factors do not appear to influence the cultural and spiritual values of KNP.
Outdoor recreation and tourism,
Natural beauty and scenery
The collection of wild biodiversity for medicinal purposes, including leaves, seeds, bark, fruits, animal parts and mushrooms, is widespread in Sikkim, as it is across the entire Himalayas. The potential for outdoor recreation and tourism - against the backdrop of one of the most spectacular mountain landscapes anywhere on the planet - is enormous and has so far not been tapped, with the exception of a limited number of access points and routes.
As discussed elsewhere, the collection of medicinal resources is part of a dilemma between a generic ban on resource collection within national parks and the stated objectives to permit sustainable use of renewable natural resources to the benefit of local communities. None of the above factors significantly limits the options of recreation and tourism. Four trekking trails have been identified for this purpose by Sikkim Government in this context, the cardinal points of which are further evaluated to understand their viabilities from the standpoint of both nature and culture tourism hubs (Chakrabarty, P., & Sadhukhan, S.K. (2020)) The national park also features some of the most challenging and scenic treks in the state and several high-altitude mountains and peaks within the park are used for expedition which affirms the KNP’s growing significance for adventure and spiritual tourism.
Importance for research
KNP is an intact reference area offering enormous potential for countless areas of scientific research, much of which remains to be fully realized. The extraordinary altitudinal gradient provides a unique opportunity for ecological research, including as regards climate change. Among the limiting factors are funding, the difficult access and the extreme altitude and terrain. Traditional knowledge systems are likewise important and risk being further eroded.
KNP constitutes a comparatively intact area. The park permits an increasingly rare glimpse into the functioning of relatively undisturbed mountain ecosystems. Its vast altitudinal range—from subtropical forests to glacial makes it a natural laboratory for scientific research on ecological processes, climate change, and biodiversity dynamics. Climate change is expected to induce important changes which deserves major scientific attention. Research on invasive species, increasingly observed in the lower elevations, is critical for early detection and ecosystem management. The rugged and inaccessible topography of the park has limited exploration in many areas thus many of the species has still not been discovered. This highlights the parks potential for species discovery Additionally, the park holds high potential for hydrological and glaciological studies, as its glacier-fed systems directly influence the Teesta River basin.As noted for example by Lachungpa (2009) traditional knowledge is sophisticated, relevant - and severely threatened. This could be a live laboratory for research and monitoring to understand the resources dynamics, climate change impact and wildlife ecology among others (Chettri et al., 2015).
Carbon sequestration,
Soil stabilisation,
Flood prevention,
Water provision (importance for water quantity and quality),
Pollination
KNP contains dense and large forests up to the unusually high tree line above 4,000 m.a.s.l. The conservation of these forests secures multiple environmental services, which include carbon sequestration, soil stabilisation, flood prevention and water provision. It can reasonably be assumed that pollination is a benefit to agricultural areas adjacent to KNP.
Given the effective protection of the forests located within KNP the only main concernis related to climate change, which is expected to affect the glaciation of KNP and the wider Himalayas and the vegetation, including the distribution and composition of forests. This, in turn, would inevitably affect all environmental services considered above. Through strict protection measures the prevention of forest degradation, and the absence of extractive land use, KNP ensures the integrity of its carbon rich landscapes. A research on qualifying the values of these services may bring stronger rationale for the World Heritage site.
Access to drinking water,
Commercial wells
Water provision - in terms quantity, regulation and quality - is a major benefit of the national park with direct implications for human livelihoods and health besides the corresponding economic benefits. The water resources delivered, conserved and naturally regulated by KNP are of critical importance well beyond the immediate surroundings, including for energy generation and agriculture.
The only main concern among the above factors is climate change and how it will affect glaciation, temperatures and precipitation patterns. Despite this, the park current hydrological function remains strong and the fringe villages located near the park continue to benefits with adequate and reliable flow of water. The same holds true for the entire Himalayan range and the vast areas depending on the major rivers originating in the Himalayas. While a detailed assessment of predicted change is beyond the scope of this exercise, it is clear that the factor deserves adequate monitoring and analysis.
Water provision (importance for water quantity and quality)
The massive glaciers of the Himalayas are an enormously important resource and service for large parts of Asia in countless ways, including for the agriculture and energy sectors. This raises concerns
As in the previous and related benefit, the only main concern among the above factors is climate change and how it will affect glaciation, temperatures and precipitation patterns.
Beyond its major and indisputable nature conservation and cultural / religious / spiritual significance, Khangchendzonga National Park (KNP) is home to large glaciated areas and the headwaters of several very important rivers, thereby substantially contributing to the water quality and quantity of some of India's most important rivers. The park also provides a wide array of ecological and social benefits.These in turn underpin multiple environmental services in the realms of energy, agriculture, food security and human health among others, well beyond Sikkim and indeed India by extending into Bangladesh. Culturally, KNP remains a living landscape with active pilgrimage routes, rituals, and oral traditions centered around sacred sites like Mount Khangchendzonga, Tholung Monastery (Dzongu Region). In terms of the local economy, KNP on the one hand provides some direct employment and indirect employment via tourism development. On the other hand, the contribution to the local economy in the form of non-timber forest products for auto-consumption, medicinal and income generation purposes is limited through the very existence of the park. In recent years, the park management has grown to focus more on research as it’s rich biodiversity and varied landscapes are invaluable for studying conservation and climate change. Improved facilities and partnerships with research groups help support this work, making the park an important resource for environmental studies. More clarity in terms of balancing strict conservation and acceptable use of renewable natural resources, including pasture, is desirable. Some innovative ways of developing KNP's buffer as heath and healing destinations or a cultural hub may add value as well as means of financing the World Heritage Site.
| № | Organization | Brief description of Active Projects | Website |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | MoEFCC-Delhi: State Forest Department-Sikkim State | Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitat (IDWH) scheme: It is a central government initiative in India focused on enhancing wildlife conservation through habitat improvement and protection. It provides financial and technical support to states and union territories for various activities, including habitat restoration, anti-poaching measures, and community engagement. The scheme also supports the recovery of endangered species and promotes eco-tourism. Project Snow Leopard is a conservation initiative launched by the Government of India in 2009 to protect and conserve snow leopards and their habitats in the high-altitude regions of the Himalayas. The project aims to strengthen wildlife conservation in the Himalayas, with a focus on participatory policies and actions involving local communities. This project was taken up in Khangchendzonga National Park in 2024 onwards. Green India Mission: The Green India Mission (GIM), officially known as the National Mission for a Green India, is one of eight national missions under India's National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC). It focuses on protecting, restoring, and enhancing India's forest cover, while also responding to climate change. The mission aims to increase forest and tree cover, improve the quality of existing forests, and enhance ecosystem services like biodiversity, water, and biomass. |
https://moef.gov.in/
|
| 2 | Forest and Environment Department, Government of Sikkim | State CAMPA (FCA): The forest lands are not authorised to be used for non-forestry purposes, however, in some cases when forest land have to be diverted for use in non-forestry purposes, it is done under the provisions of the Van (Sanrakshan Evam Samvardhan ) Adhiniyam 1980. Under the provisions, the user agencies have to provide payment for ensuring that the loss incurred due to the non-forestry activities, is compensated for by carrying out conservation activities in nearby areas. Accordingly, this fund has also been utilised in various activities within the park such as plantation, eco-tourism and wildlife habitat improvement. |
http://sikkimforest.gov.in/
|
| 3 | Global Tiger Forum in partnership with Forest and Environment Department (Government of Sikkim) | Investigating and Addressing Tiger Conservation in Sikkim – The Eastern Himalaya: The Global Tiger Forum (GTF), in partnership with the Sikkim Forest and Environment Department, is actively involved in a project focused on tiger conservation in Sikkim, specifically in the Eastern Himalayas. The project involves various initiatives like camera trapping, capacity building, and human-wildlife conflict mitigation. |
https://globaltigerforum.org/author/gtfadmin/
|
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