Mana Pools National Park, Sapi and Chewore Safari Areas

Country

Zimbabwe

Inscribed in

1984

Criteria

(vii)

(ix)

(x)

The conservation outlook for this site has been assessed as "significant concern" in the latest assessment cycle. Explore the Conservation Outlook Assessment for the site below. You have the option to access the summary, or the detailed assessment.

On the banks of the Zambezi, great cliffs overhang the river and the floodplains. The area is home to a remarkable concentration of wild animals, including elephants, buffalo, leopards and cheetahs. An important concentration of Nile crocodiles is also be found in the area. © UNESCO

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Summary

2025 Conservation Outlook

Finalised on

11 Oct 2025

Significant concern

This large wilderness in the middle Zambezi Valley has maintained most of its inherent values through its remote location and the low level of competing land uses. It is nevertheless undergoing significant long-term change as a result of the upstream construction of the Kariba Dam affecting the seasonal flooding regime. Although this occurred half a century ago, the resulting ecological change is likely to persist for decades, or perhaps centuries, to come. Changes on the alluvial terraces and sandbanks are being seen that may reflect more localised conditions than the effect brought about by the Kariba Dam. Meanwhile, the potential for a third major hydroelectric facility on the Zambezi River at Mupata Gorge, which would flood the core of the site and reduce its wildlife carrying capacity by half, remains a real long-term threat. More immediate, but less significant in scale, are the threats arising from oil and mineral exploitation in the upstream catchment (including the adjacent Hurungwe Safari Area) and the fact that underlying geology may encourage more oil and gas exploration and exploitation in the future. Poorly managed tourism development and inappropriate management including large mammal translocations that do not follow IUCN guidelines, and the provision of artificial supplies of drinking water during the dry season in areas where previously water was available only seasonally, pose further threats. Tourism development away from the Zambezi River now often includes pumping ground water to provide year-round water in what were previously seasonal pans with no clear ZPWMA policy for this activity. This water provision is likely to lead to major and long-term, elephant-induced impacts on the woody vegetation. With these important exceptions, protection and management appear to be generally adequate for such a large remote area with few immediate threats, but it is not possible to assess fully its effectiveness. This is because the site lacks effective monitoring and therefore there is little information available on the state of the site’s values. There is a need for increased vigilance to ensure greater transboundary cooperation in the design and site location of tourism infrastructure on both banks of the Zambezi River, and to monitor, evaluate and mitigate the effects of possible future mining activities within the Zambezi catchment. Aerial survey data indicate declines in the numbers of key species and these need to be addressed.

Current state and trend of VALUES

High Concern

Many of the site’s values have been maintained, although the population declines of large mammal species during the last two decades is concerning. The magnitude of the declines was confirmed by two recent aerial surveys, during 2021 and 2024. The ecology of the riverbank and Zambezi alluvial communities is undergoing gradual, long-term change resulting from the (pre-inscription) construction of Kariba Dam 110 km upstream, which permanently altered the flood regime. There is anecdotal evidence of changes on the alluvium during the last few decades (e.g., woody species compositional changes, compacted soils contributing to rainfall runoff). However, there are no baseline monitoring data to confirm these changes. One key element of critical concern is the loss of black rhino, because, until the late 1980s, the World Heritage site used to be one of the species’ few remaining strongholds. Cumulatively, the threats to these values result in maintaining the "Concern Status" as "High". Visits by the large herds of buffalo on the floodplain have been extremely rare during this period under review. Mostly likely due to the lack of grazing habitat.

Overall THREATS

High Threat

The site currently faces few major direct threats but a number of lesser threats that will ultimately have a cumulative and potentially irreversible impact. Poaching led to the eradication of black rhino in the early years following inscription, and remains a real threat hindering re-introduction of this key endangered species. Alteration to the flooding regime caused by the Kariba Dam will continue to exert a long-term influence on the area’s ecology for many decades to come. The conversion of seasonal pans into year-round sources of drinking water for wildlife is likely to result in major and undesirable, elephant-induced changes to the woody vegetation. Other lower-level threats include inappropriate and clustered tourism developments, the occurrence of invasive alien species, illegal fishing and mining, and inappropriate management, such as large mammal translocations. The potential for hydroelectric power generation from a downstream site in the Mupata Gorge presents the greatest long-term threat, as it would involve flooding much of the valley’s key wildlife habitat and reducing its carrying capacity by half. Other potential threats include large scale mining and other development activities within the site itself and in adjacent areas that would impinge on the values of the site itself. A well defined robust and rigorous research agenda, together with monitoring of key indicators, will help to identify, quantitatively and qualitatively, the threats faced and the means to mitigate their impacts.

Overall PROTECTION and MANAGEMENT

Some Concern

While protection and management appear to be generally adequate for such a large remote area with few immediate threats, there are notable exceptions, including the provision of water during the dry season in pans that were previously seasonal and inappropriate animal translocations. These management threats come from within the World Heritage site. The site is understaffed and poorly equipped to counter any upsurge in poaching, although partnerships between NGOs and the ZPWMA are proving useful. However, it is not possible to assess fully the effectiveness of anti-poaching activities, because the site lacks effective monitoring and therefore there is little information available on the state of the site’s values. There is a need to ensure greater transboundary cooperation in the design and location of tourism infrastructure on both banks of the Zambezi River, and to conduct thorough impact assessments for tourism infrastructure within Mana Pools NP. There is also a need to monitor, evaluate and mitigate the effects of possible future mining activities within the Zambezi catchment, as well as poaching and other illegal activities. It is also necessary to provide the Zimbabwe public with a role in the management decision-making processes. Conservation of the key attributes of biodiversity needs further research, for example, the declines of key species need to be investigated, better understood and, where appropriate, mitigated. More attention also needs to paid to the southern boundary.

Full assessment

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Description of values

Values

World Heritage values

Diverse bird fauna

Criterion

(x)

More than 450 species of birds have been recorded at the site (UNEP-WCMC), with 90 species of waterbirds and 52 raptors recorded in the wider Middle Zambezi Valley Important Bird Area (Birdlife, 2012).

Important populations of a diversity of large mammals and other fauna and threatened species

Criterion

(x)

Because of its size and the diversity of its habitats, the site supports large and sustainable populations of a diverse mammalian fauna, an important population of Nile crocodile, and diverse assemblages of other fauna (many of which remain undocumented). The site supports important populations of threatened large mammals including an estimated 10,500 elephants (Dunham, 2024), 3,000 hippopotamus, more than 260 lion, cheetah and wild dog. Other species include leopard, brown hyaena, and several species of birds, including more than 1% of the world’s Lilian’s Lovebirds (Agapornis lilianae) and an important population of African skimmers (Rynchops flavirostris) on the river sandbanks. In addition, the area hosts an isolated northern population of Nyala (Tragelaphus angasii).

Black rhino refuge

Criterion

(x)

At the time of inscription, there were 500 black rhino, one of Africa’s largest populations of this endangered species (World Heritage Committee, 2011). There are currently no rhino but the area remains a key rhino habitat for possible future reintroduction under suitable conditions.

Seasonal movements of large mammals

Criterion

(ix)

More than 10,000 elephants (Dunham et al., 2015) and a similar number of buffalo move seasonally between the river and the surrounding deciduous woodlands, up to the top of the escarpment some 50 km away, all within the World Heritage property

Riverine sandbank ecosystems

Criterion

(ix)

The 60 km2 of alluvium within Mana Pools – sandbanks, islands, floodplains and old river channels - provide an exceptional substrate for ecological succession, driven by the changing course of the river and natural climatic and ecological factors (World Heritage Committee, 2011). The sandbanks for example are essential for egg-laying by Nile crocodiles and so this stretch of the Zambezi River represents an important refuge within the current range of this species.

Spectacular animal congregations

Criterion

(vii)

Spectacular dry season congregations of around 20,000 large mammals, notably elephants, buffalo, waterbuck, zebra and sable antelope, in the evergreen gallery forests and riverside communities along the banks of the Zambezi represent an exceptional natural phenomenon dependent on the maintenance of dispersal areas throughout the 6,766 km2 of the World Heritage property and beyond (World Heritage Committee, 2011).

Other important biodiversity values

Landscape gradient

Mana Pools NP includes a range of vegetation and soil types that stretch from the sandbanks of the Zambezi River, through Zambezi riverine woodlands on alluvial terraces, jesse thickets on deep sands, mopane woodland on sodic soils, and mixed woodland on colluvial soils, to the Brachystegia/Julbernardia woodlands on the Zambezi escarpment hills, approximately 50 km southwards (Guy, 1977). Elsewhere in the Middle Zambezi Valley, similar systems have been flooded by Lake Kariba, or Lake Cabora Bassa.

Assessment information

Threats

Current Threats

High Threat

Long-term ecological change in the core Zambezi alluvial vegetation resulting from a change in the seasonal flooding regime following construction of the Kariba Dam is probably the main driver of ecological change affecting the site. The impacts of elephant on the vegetation in the vicinity of the pumped pans is likely to cause major and undesirable ecological changes. Poaching led to the eradication of the black rhino during the early years following inscription, and remains a real threat hindering re-introduction of this key endangered species. The elephant faces continued poaching and illegal trade. Other threats include inappropriate and multiplying tourism developments (often accompanied by year-round provision of water into seasonal pans), the occurrence of invasive alien species, illegal fishing, artisanal gold mining/panning, and inappropriate translocation of large mammals into the World Heritage site. The decline in numbers of many large mammal species, as evidenced by aerial surveys, is a threat. The causes of these declines are not known and should be researched, together with appropriate monitoring.

Invasive Non-Native/ Alien Species

(Invasive alien species)

Invasive/problematic species

Pistia stratiotes

Azolla filiculoides

Salvinia molesta

Limnobium laevigatum

Eichhornia crassipes

Amaranthus hybridus

Tridax procumbens

Bidens pilosa

Sida cordifolia

Boerhavia diffusa

Physalis angulata

Solanum nigrum

Argemone mexicana

Senna obtusifolia

Senna occidentalis

Mesosphaerum suaveolens

Tithonia rotundifolia

Calotropis procera

Desmodium triflorum

Gomphrena celosioides

Acanthospermum hispidum

Xanthium strumarium

Alternanthera pungens

Alternanthera sessilis

Dysphania ambrosioides

Euphorbia hirta

Portulaca oleracea

Datura stramonium

Mimosa pigra

Galinsoga quadriradiata

Desmodium triflorum

Euphorbia serpens

Other invasive species names

Erigeron (Conyza) species

Low Threat

Inside site

, Widespread(15-50%)

Outside site

The site is particularly vulnerable to invasive alien plants because the headwaters of all the major rivers flowing within it (except the Zambezi) lie in commercial or communal farming areas to the south of the boundary. Cultivated land in farming areas provides suitable conditions for plants often described as weeds, which include many species known to be alien, and species of uncertain origin that are probably not indigenous. Continued disturbance of the soil within the World Heritage site by abundant large mammals, especially in riverine areas, encourages the establishment and growth of these species. The Zambezi River is a source of alien and invasive aquatic plant species.
These alien invasive aquatic plants include Pistia stratiotes (water lettuce, Nile cabbage), Azolla filiculoides (Red water fern) and Salvinia molesta (Kariba weed), all of which have occurred at the site since at least the 1970s. Limnobium laevigatum (Amazon frogbit) and Eichhornia crassipes (Water hyacinth) are more recent invaders. During 2010, Limnobium occurred in Zimbabwe only in dams around Harare (Flora of Zimbabwe, 2025). The aquatic system within the site, including the pans near the Zambezi River, has been transformed by the construction of Kariba Dam and the consequent change in the flooding regime and so the dominance of alien invasive plants in these pans is not surprising.
Terrestrial plants that are likely alien species, but which are not a cause for particular concern at present and which have been at the site since at least the 1970s, include Ageratum conyzoides, Bidens pilosa (Black-jack), Erigeron (Conyza) sp., Tridax procumbens, Alternanthera pungens (Khaki burrweed, Paper thorn), Alternanthera sessilis var. nodiflora, Amaranthus hybridus (Pigweed), Dysphania (Chenopodium) ambrosioides (Wormseed), Euphorbia hirta, Senna (Cassia) obtusifolia (American sicklepod), Senna (Cassia) occidentalis (Coffee senna), Sida cordifolia, Boerhavia diffusa (Tarvine), Argemone mexicana (Mexican poppy), Portulaca oleracea (Common purslane), Physalis angulata, Datura stramonium (Jimson weed, Thorn apple), Mimosa pigra and Solanum nigrum (Black nightshade) (Guy, Undated).
Relatively recent arrivals at the site include Mesosphaerum (Hyptis) suaveolens (Pignut or Spikenard) (Flora of Zimbabwe, 2025), Tithonia rotundifolia (Mexican sunflower), Galinsoga quadriradiata (ciliata) (Shaggy gallant soldier), Calotropis procera (Apple of Sodom, Calotrope, Rubber bush), Grona triflora (Desmodium triflorum) (Three flower tick-trefoil), Euphorbia serpens (Creeping spurge), Gomphrena celosioides (Bachelor’s buttons), Acanthospermum hispidum (Upright starbur) and Xanthium strumarium (Giant cocklebur). Tithonia may alter the appearance of the landscape, especially in the Zambezi alluvial woodlands. Desmodium uncinatum (Silverleaf desmodium or Velcro plant), an alien species that occurs in the Karoi farming area to the south of the site, is likely to invade the site in future. This species was introduced to Zimbabwe as a pasture plant, is favoured by domestic livestock and would probably be browsed by wildlife. Another probable future arrival is Ageratina adenophora (Crofton weed), an alien species and an aggressive invader, already occurring in the north of Zimbabwe, although not yet at the site.
So far, no alien plant species have been reported as escaping from the hay bales ill-advisedly used to feed wildlife in the alluvial woodlands of Mana Pools National Park during 2019.

Fishing, Harvesting & Controlling Aquatic Species

(Illegal and legal fishing)

High Threat

Inside site

, Widespread(15-50%)

Outside site

Recreational rod and line sport fishing is carried out on both sides of the Zambezi river with catch and release of Tiger fish (Hydrocynus vittatus) on the Zimbabwean side. Fishing for tilapia is not subject to catch and release protocols and the offtake for both Zimbabwe and Zambia tourism camps is not well quantified. Commercial artisanal fishing, both legal and illegal using extensive netting including monofilament net, is carried out from the Zambian side of the river from Chiawa and Rufunsa Game Management Areas and by Mozambicans boating upstream from Zumbo. There are concerns of the effects of long-term commercial fishing that spills over into the Zimbabwean side of the river. Monofilament net is a problem of great concern to artisanal fisheries across the Zambezi system, because it is plastic, non-destructible and ensnares in particular crocodiles, often leading to their death (IUCN Consultation, 2020).

Recreational Activities

(Impact of tourism activities)

Low Threat

Inside site

, Widespread(15-50%)

Outside site

Escorted and unescorted walking and canoeing trips through prime wildlife habitat are a major draw for tourism. Increased vehicular traffic and game drives by safari operators are a threat to the site’s wilderness values. There are also reports of disturbance by tourists, safari operators and film crews at African wild dog den sites, kill sites and resting sites and such disturbance may be a factor in the decline of African wild dog numbers (Painted Dog Conservation, 2023). Other disturbance factors from tourism include the crowding of iconic elephants and the kills of other predators. At the end of 2022, ZPWMA (Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority) met Mana Pools stakeholders to discuss a worrying increase in the number of reports of inappropriate and insensitive behaviour by some visitors and safari operators in the park (Zambezi Society, 2023a). As a consequence, new codes-of-conduct for visitors were published by the Zambezi Society. The number of tour operator camps and vehicles has increased significantly. Despite the introduction of a Code of Conduct for visitor behaviour, certain operators and visitors violate these regulations, with ZimParks reluctant to enforce penalties (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
The expansion of private concession areas has increasingly restricted Zimbabwean citizens’ access to the Zambezi River frontage.

Dams & Water Management/Use

(Regulation of flooding and water flow)

Data Deficient

Inside site

, Extent of threat not known

Outside site

The closure of Kariba Dam during 1958 brought to an end the seasonal flooding in the wide, relatively slow-flowing section of the middle Zambezi between Kariba and Mupata Gorge (Attwell, 1970). This is inevitably having major long-term implications for the ecology of the riverbanks, islands and alluvial terraces and associated communities of plants and animals (Guy, 1981), the nature and extent of which will never be known as there are no comparable data for periods before and after construction of the dam (Ncube, Beevers and Edwin, 2012).
Notwithstanding the effects of Kariba Dam, there are other threats to the alluvium and sandbanks and vegetation changes are being noted. It should also be noted that long-term geomorphological processes are such that the Zambezi River is gradually cutting (or eroding) into its south bank and depositing material on its north bank.
Water flow along the Middle Zambezi River is controlled mainly by the flow of water through turbines at Kariba Dam and at the Kafue Gorge in Zambia. Recently, through a combination of low rainfall in the Upper Zambezi catchment during 2023/24 (Zimba, 2024) and poor management of the water in Lake Kariba – when the Zambezi River Authority allowed both the Zimbabwean and Zambian power authorities to exceed their water allocations during three successive years (2020, 2021 and 2022) (Zambezi River Authority, 2023) - water flow from Kariba Dam is unusually low and hence currently the level of the Zambezi River in the Middle Zambezi is also unusually low.

Recreation & Tourism Areas

(Development of tourism facilities)

High Threat

Inside site

, Scattered(5-15%)

In general tourism developments at the site have focused on low density, high quality tourism with small-scale tented camps and eco-lodge facilities. Pressure for tourism sites in Mana Pools NP has grown exponentially in the last 15 years as successive draft management plans were not approved until 2023. The Mana Pools NP Management Plan for 2023-2033 reports that, along the park section of the Zambezi River, there are seven semi-permanent camps and five “temporary extended camps” managed by safari operators, as well as a large public campsite, fifteen special campsites in addition to the six lodges and five tented camps operated by ZPWMA. Environmental assessments for sites are often perfunctory, have been challenged in the past, and are not readily available to the Zimbabwe public. In addition, two of these sites managed by safari operators have been allocated in what was previously demarcated as a Wilderness Area in Mana Pools NP (ZPWMA Park Plan, 2009). This has effectively removed the Wilderness zone from the park. Although individual camps remain a concern, management should be more concerned about the cumulative impact and the effect of 10 or more camps fielding more than 200 beds in close proximity to the alluvial woodland core area, each camp with its own exclusion area, leading to a declining aesthetic quality of the area for the general public. In addition, the public campsite has undergone significant expansion in the number of sites and, when full, would represent a huge pool of tourists utilising the Zambezi alluvial woodlands. Seven leases for sites inland from the Zambezi River have been issued since 2007, although three of these camps near the centre of the park have strong links with the alluvial woodlands, with two camps using the these woodlands extensively, as they are less than 30 minutes’ drive away. The number of vehicles fielded from all these camps, and all the other sites, both inside and outside of the park (e.g. Sapi and Hurungwe) are a cause for concern as they can lead to congestion in the “high-density” alluvial areas, crowding and disturbance at wildlife sightings and an erosion of the marketable "wilderness quality" brand. New camps away from the main river are often allocated at pans and this has the potential for disturbance of wildlife. In addition, exclusion zones around the pans remove them from the general tourism circuit. As the pans are seasonal, the tour operator desires to provide permanent water through drilling into groundwater supplies (Chayuka et al., 2023). This affects not only large mammal behaviour, but also hydrological and ecological processes, in particular encouraging increased impacts on the surrounding woody vegetation by a greater year-round density of elephant (Mukomberanwa et al., 2024a). The major and undesirable conservation impacts of converting seasonal water supplies into permanent ones are clear from Hwange NP, Zimbabwe (Conybeare, 1989; 1991). There, decades of water pumping has allowed elevated densities of elephant to have major and long-term impacts on the woody vegetation in the vicinity of the pumped pans.

Mining & Quarrying

(Artisanal gold mining and panning in rivers)

Data Deficient

Inside site

, Localised(<5%)

Outside site

More than 500,000 Zimbabweans are directly involved as artisanal and small scale miners (ASM), with more than three million dependents (Gutu et al., 2017). ASM contribute significantly to national gold production and revenue generation for the country. However, both legal and illegal ASMs face a number of constraints which include policy shortcomings, and in particular adoption of poor mining methods, which are leading to severe environmental degradation. Illegal gold mining and panning is now taking place in and alongside major rivers and their catchments which flow into and through protected areas. The southern boundaries of Mana Pools NP and Chewore SA in particular have been severely affected not only by mining and panning but by growing numbers of miners dependent on wildlife resources to sustain themselves while mining. During recent years, ASM have invaded southern Chewore SA (Dunham and Nyaguse, 2021; Chakuya et al., 2023; Dzoro et al., 2023).

Hunting, Collecting & Controlling Terrestrial Animals

(Poaching)

Other targeted species names

Diceros bicornis, Loxodonta africana

High Threat

Inside site

, Throughout(>50%)

Outside site

Well-organised commercial poaching of black rhino drove the species to local extinction between 1984 and 1994, and is considered to be a continuing threat hampering efforts to re-introduce the species at present (Lowveld Rhino Trust, 2023). Elephant poaching is a major threat, but poaching of other species for bushmeat whilst not a major threat is of growing concern (Loveridge et al., 2024). The decline of several key species, notably buffalo and elephant (as evidenced by aerial surveys) may be an indication of an unknown poaching threat. Other factors, possibly ecological and yet to be assessed, may be contributing to the decline of species such as sable, zebra and eland. Elephant and hippopotamus dominate the large herbivore guild in terms of biomass and inter-specific competition may play a role in the decline of the other species (IUCN Consultation, 2020). A recent upsurge has occurred in southern African wildlife areas with poisoning of large carcasses to kill vultures that descend to scavenge. As regional vulture populations decline, large wilderness areas like the mid-Zambezi are especially important to protect from this form of poaching, which is conducted for the lucrative illegal trade in vulture body parts, used in traditional medicine (IUCN Consultation, 2025).

Hunting, Collecting & Controlling Terrestrial Animals

(Commercial sport hunting)

Low Threat

Inside site

, Scattered(5-15%)

Outside site

Commercial sport hunting has been discontinued in Sapi SA in a long term lease agreement between ZPWMA and the current concessionaire in favour of nonconsumptive photographic tourism and sport fishing. However, there is hunting in northern Chewore SA, except in a small concession for a fishing camp in north-west Chewore SA (Anon., 2024; Chingarande, 2024). The southern boundary of Chewore SA is adjacent to hunting concessions in the Mukwichi Communal Land and in Mbire District. Adherence to quotas and hunting regulations is overseen by ZPWMA. Present quotas however, may be at biologically unsustainable levels. Whilst causality is uncertain, these hunting areas (as well as Mana Pools NP) have seen declines in wildlife numbers, notably buffalo. There is also concern about the hunting of iconic animals that stray into hunting areas from the non-hunting area. ZPWMA maintains a training quota (mostly elephant and buffalo) in all of its protected areas, including those in the World Heritage site, which includes Mana Pools NP. Additionally, a ration quota was introduced to offset ranger hardship in a difficult macro-economic environment, later compounded by the COVID-19 pandemic. On occasions ad hoc quotas are issued. However, the biological sustainability of the combined safari hunting, training, ration and ad hoc quotas needs careful re-assessment and to be considered as a whole (IUCN Consultation, 2020). The failure of ZPWMA to publish in full the hunting quotas, the actual hunting offtakes, the other offtakes and the trophy sizes (Muboko et al., 2021) prevents independent scrutiny of the biological sustainability of the offtakes.

Logging, Harvesting & Controlling Trees

(Deforestation for tobacco curing systems)

High Threat

Outside site

Tobacco farming in communities to the south of the World Heritage site has resulted in increased demand for fuelwood for tobacco curing. This has contributed to the undocumented deforestation outside the southern boundary of the World Heritage site (IUCN Consultation, 2020) and the loss of previously available dry-season water in certain pools, pans, and subsurface sources (accessible to elephants by trunk-tunneling) along the Ruckomechi River. Sand deposition resulting from upstream erosion, largely driven by deforestation linked to the tobacco industry outside the park estate has exacerbated this issue (IUCN Consultation, 2025).

Biological System Management

(Inappropriate translocations of large mammals)

High Threat

Inside site

, Widespread(15-50%)

Outside site

During recent years, there were translocations of African wild dogs (from the north-west Matabeleland region of Zimbabwe) and elephant and impala (from the south-east lowveld of Zimbabwe (Great Plains Foundation, 2023)) into the World Heritage site. Other (especially elephant translocations are still being discussed. There is no available evidence that these translocations were made in accordance with the appropriate IUCN guidelines (Dublin and Niskanen, 2003; IUCN/SSC, 2013) nor that the translocations had any conservation benefit for wildlife in the World Heritage site. The release of individuals from other regions of Zimbabwe was likely to have had an adverse effect by mixing gene pools. The translocation of the African wild dog pack was judged an expensive failure when the pack moved into the Mbire communal area (immediately to the east of the World Heritage site) and killed domestic livestock, after which the surviving pack members were recaptured and removed from the Zambezi Valley (Painted Dog Conservation, 2020). The elephant translocation was funded by foreign donors and went ahead despite opposition from knowledgeable local conservationists. One local conservationist stated that the current population densities of elephants in the Zambezi Valley do not indicate a need for additional animals and a second agreed, stating that the Zambezi Valley has viable populations of all major species and therefore moving in animals was not a conservation imperative (Machamire, 2022). Protected areas should protect not only species and populations, but also gene pools. These translocations, which have no or little conservation value, are mixing gene pools unnecessarily.

Dams & Water Management/Use

(Conversion of seasonal pans into year-round water sources using pumped ground water)

High Threat

Inside site

, Widespread(15-50%)

Outside site

During recent years, pumps have been installed at some seasonal pans located away from the Zambezi River (Chayuka et al., 2023). The pumping of ground water into these pans during the dry season has converted these pans from ones that held drinking water for wildlife only seasonally into permanent sources of water. This affects not only large mammal behaviour, but also hydrological and ecological processes, in particular encouraging increased impacts on the surrounding woody vegetation by a greater year-round density of elephant (Mukomberanwa et al., 2024a). The major and undesirable conservation impacts of converting seasonal water supplies into permanent ones are clear from Hwange NP, Zimbabwe (Conybeare, 1989; 1991). There, decades of water pumping has allowed elevated densities of elephant to have major and long-term impacts on the woody vegetation in the vicinity of the pumped pans. Nonetheless, the policy of providing sources of pumped water in the Zambezi Valley World Heritage site has been implemented without any public consultation or debate, and without the adoption of a formal policy (Mana Pools NP Management Plan, 2023). Pumped pans are often located next to new tourist camps, giving the impression that the policy is driven by tourism, not by conservation interests.
The availability of water in the interior of the World Heritage site is more complex than the pumping of certain pans by parks-approved tour operators. While it is true that providing water at the end of the dry season can negatively impact woody vegetation in the surrounding areas, this issue must be considered alongside the loss of previously available dry-season water in certain pools, pans, and subsurface sources (accessible to elephants) along the Ruckomechi River. Sand deposition resulting from upstream erosion, largely driven by deforestation linked to the tobacco industry outside the park estate has exacerbated this issue. The extent of water flow from Chitake Spring has significantly reduced over the past decade and research is needed to assess the diminishing water resources and impacts on dependent wildlife. The pumped pans at Kavinga (Ruckomechi River), Mhara (8 km upstream of Chitake Spring), and Nyamawani Pan provide critical relief during the dry season for remaining buffalo herds. However, buffalo numbers continue to decline, likely due to a combination of limited water access, loss of grazing land on the Mana Pools floodplain, and a lack of water in grazing areas within the interior. Additionally, there is no long-term sustainability plan for water provision beyond the lease period, by which time a localised, artificially dependent ecosystem will have been established.

Potential Threats

High Threat

When the Zimbabwean economy and political climate becomes more conducive to foreign investment, there are a number of potentially major threats to the site. The most serious of these would be development of a hydroelectric facility in the Mupata Gorge with the associated loss of wildlife habitat. Oil and mineral exploration and development are real threats, with the associated pollution of the Zambezi River. Growth in tourism will bring pressures to allow more, larger and intrusive tourism facilities which may ultimately exceed an acceptable tourism "carrying capacity" threshold for the site (especially the alluvial woodlands), impacting its core values as a unique and aesthetic wilderness. Conversely, lack of tourism and associated loss of revenue and funding for ZPWMA could open the door for increased poaching and/or other more income generating activities which may impact the values of the site. The advantages and disadvantages of the newly formed, but not yet operational, Greater Mana Pools Conservation Trust have yet to be revealed.

Dams & Water Management/Use

(Dam construction)

Low Threat

Inside site

, Localised(<5%)

Outside site

The ecological heart of the site, the rich Zambezi alluvial woodlands, has been threatened by a hydroelectric scheme proposed for Mupata Gorge (Du Toit, 1984) which would flood 850 km2 of the Zambezi Valley and halve the wildlife carrying capacity of the World Heritage site (UNEP-WCMC, 2011). Until now only feasibility studies have been carried out and while there is currently no intention to develop the project, it remains a potential threat because of severe electricity shortages in the region. The construction of the Batoka dam upstream of Lake Kariba may satisfy local power demands for the foreseeable future.

Oil & Gas exploration/development

(Oil and other mineral prospection)

High Threat

Outside site

Oil prospecting by Mobil within the World Heritage area occurred during the early 1990s (Zambezi Society, 2021). During 2023, a company called Shalom Mining Corporation – a previously unknown Zimbabwean company - applied for an exclusive prospective order to prospect for oil and natural gas for an area that covered ~1300 km2, mostly in Hurungwe SA, to the west of the World Heritage site, but including a strip along the western boundary of Mana Pools NP which is within the World Heritage site (Zambezi Society, 2023b). So far, no prospecting has taken place. Concessions for gas production have been allocated in Mbire District and it is likely that, if these are successful, there could be pressure on the WH site, given its common geology. On the Zambian side of the Zambezi River, opposite the World Heritage site, prospecting in the Lower Zambezi NP and the adjacent Chiawa Game Management Area has been undertaken in the past (2006-8) with significant discoveries of exploitable gold and copper (Wild Foundation, 2008). Permits have been issued for uranium mining developments 100-200 km upstream from Mana Pools, which could result in pollution of the property (IUCN and UNESCO, 2011). During 2011, a proposal was made for copper mining within the Lower Zambezi NP, with the application being approved during 2014 and mining set to commence during 2023. During May 2023, the mining company was ordered to pause operations at the site by the Zambia Environmental Management Agency and during August 2023 it was ordered to cease all mining operations. During September 2024, Zambia’s mining license committee approved two new large-scale exploration licenses (licenses 38439-HQ-LEL and 38572-HQ-LEL) for the Chiawa Game Management Area (Chisalu, 2024). There was some initial confusion about these licences, which were believed to apply to the Lower Zambezi NP, but later it was clarified that they apply to Chiawa GMA.

Unknown Threats

(Financial Stability)

High Threat

Inside site

, Throughout(>50%)

Outside site

The collapse of tourism because of the travel restrictions that accompanied the Covid 19 pandemic (Zimbabwe Tourism Authority, 2022; 2023) significantly reduced revenues to the ZPWMA. The authority is not part of central government revenue streams that could act as cushion during difficult times. A management authority short of funds could open the door to increased poaching of elephants, other wildlife and bushmeat; or decision-making that is based on financial priorities rather than conservation priorities (for example, approving tourism facilities or translocations that are inappropriate); or, more perversely, redefine the uses to which the protected areas could be put (pers. obs.).
Financial difficulties may be compounded by priorities that favour head office bureaucracy rather than conservation in the field. The failure of the ZPWMA to publish detailed, annual and audited financial accounts may fuel the suspicion amongst some members of the Zimbabwe public that the ZPWMA’s decision-making would not withstand independent scrutiny.

Annual & Perennial Non-Timber Crops

(Irrigated agriculture)

Very Low Threat

Outside site

There are reports of a large-scale irrigated agricultural development project (the Chirundu Project) proposed during 2005 along the south bank of the Zambezi between the World Heritage site and the border town of Chirundu (UNEP-WCMC, 2011). However, no development has occurred since then. Other irrigation projects have been developed at Kanyemba adjacent to Chewore in Mbire Communal Land, but during September 2024 appeared not to be operational (pers. obs.).

Hunting, Collecting & Controlling Terrestrial Animals

(Commercial bushmeat poaching)

Low Threat

Inside site

, Throughout(>50%)

Outside site

Given the ease of access afforded to the site by the main Harare-Lusaka road, and the potential size of the market, it must be considered possible that commercial hunting of wildlife for bushmeat may occur (as it has in Kafue National Park, Zambia). Illegal commercial hunting and/or bushmeat harvesting is occurring increasingly within communities situated on the southern boundaries of the site. With current levels of poverty and the increased presence of gold miners and panners, it is not surprising that bushmeat poaching by snaring has extended into the World Heritage site (Loveridge et al., 2024).

Changes in Precipitation & Hydrological Regime

(Drought)

Data Deficient

Inside site

, Throughout(>50%)

Outside site

Climate change is expected to see greater temperatures and reduced rainfall, with an increased frequency of drought and flood cycles. The 2019 drought prompted the provision of imported feed (hay) for elephants and other wildlife at Mana Pools, in the interests of the welfare of individual animals. Such interventions need to be considered very carefully in respect of long term ecological processes and the in situ conservation of populations of species, versus the welfare of individual animals. Also, the import of hay is a serious risk factor for the import of the seeds of invasive plants.

Protection and management

Assessing Protection and Management

Involvement of stakeholders and rightsholders, including indigenous peoples and local communities, in decision-making processes

Serious Concern

Much of the World Heritage site adjoins other protected areas which are devoid of people and serve as a buffer zone. Community based conservation projects have been established to the south of Mana Pools (by Akashinga – formerly the International AntiPoaching Foundation - in the Pfundundu area). The southern section of Chewore SA is used for CAMPFIRE hunting activities. A tree planting initiative south of the World Heritage site has started (by My Trees Trust in the Chundu area, south of Mana Pools), but tree planting is a costly and often inefficient method to promote woodland growth. It is usually more efficient and effective to encourage the natural growth of coppice shoots from the roots and stumps of felled trees, protecting this regrowth from fire and herbivory by domestic livestock.
In Mbire communal land, immediately to the east of the World Heritage site, the African Wildlife Foundation has implemented a livelihoods project which aims to promote wildlife conservation by reducing pressure on natural resources and enhancing sustainable livelihoods for community game scouts and their respective communities. The project has supported some scouts through the distribution of equipment to allow them to run their own businesses; some youths have benefitted from training with online entrepreneurship resources; and some women have also established businesses, making soap and perfume to sell.
The UNDP-GEF project ‘Strengthening Biodiversity and Ecosystem Management and Climate Smart Landscapes in the Mid to Lower Zambezi Region of Zimbabwe’ achieved its mid-term target of 1800 km2 under community based wildlife management (CBWM) (Bann and Kujinga, 2021) in the communal lands bordering the Zambezi Valley Parks and Wild Life Estate (which includes the World Heritage site, as well as adjacent Safari Areas outside the World Heritage site). Activities contributing to improved CBWM included the establishment of base camps, awareness raising, and establishing and strengthening community institutions/trusts in community wildlife conservancies.
In general, ZPWMA has inadequate contact with the local communities as two community liaison officers cannot cover enough ground in the area (Mana Pools Management Plan, 2023). Much of the contact is in response to problem animal control and therefore occurs when communities are aggrieved. A proactive approach is needed, so that communities see ZPWMA personnel not only when something negative has happened, but also at times when things are good. This work can be carried out in conjunction with conservation partners, but it is important that communities do not perceive community outreach to be the purview of those conservation partners - it should be seen to driven by the ZPWMA.
The people of Zimbabwe are the ultimate owners (rights holders) of the country’s protected areas, including this World Heritage site (Parks and Wild Life Act, 1975). However, there is no evidence that ZPWMA acknowledges this, with their consultations often confined to stakeholders (for example, safari operators, some NGOs) that are not independent of ZPWMA, but have vested interests and are likely to want to maintain good relations with ZPWMA. There is no available evidence of the involvement of stakeholders and rights holders, including local communities, in the decision-making processes.

Legal framework

Mostly Effective

The site is administered under the Zimbabwe Parks and Wild Life Act (Chapter 20:14) and the SADC Protocol on Wildlife and Law Enforcement. As the area is a World Heritage site, ZPWMA is also required to submit reports to UNESCO, as and when called upon by the World Heritage Committee.

Governance arrangements

Some Concern

During November 2023, the ZPWMA and the Peace Parks Foundation (PPF) – an NGO based outside Zimbabwe - signed a co-management agreement for the so-called Greater Mana Pools Ecosystem, which covers 9,636 km², including all the World Heritage site as well as the adjacent Hurungwe SA. Through this agreement, a trust (the Greater Mana Pools Conservation Trust) will be established for management, capacity building and business development. The Trust will be overseen by a Board of Trustees composed of an equal number of representatives from ZPWMA and PPF. The management agreement lasts for 20 years.
More than one year after the agreement was signed, the board of trustees has yet to meet and the trust director has yet to be appointed. Nonetheless, Peace Parks Foundation has started preparation of another management plan for the Greater Mana Pools Ecosystem area, and ZPWMA has started ranger recruitment for the area, leading to the concern that the Trust has been effectively side-lined even before it is properly operational.
There is also concern about the area overlap in responsibilities between the Trust and Great Plain Foundation, which administers most of Sapi SA, and the Trust and Chewore Conservation Trust, which – since 2024 – has administered the southern Chewore SA.
The agreement signed by ZPWMA and PPF appears not to be publically available. Furthermore, there is no indication that governance and decision-making are, or will, be open to scrutiny by stakeholders and rightsholders, namely the Zimbabwe public.

Integration into local, regional and national planning systems (including sea/landscape connectivity)

Some Concern

The Governments of Zimbabwe and Zambia signed a memorandum of understanding during May 2023 to establish the Lower Zambezi-Mana Pools (LOZAMAP) Transfrontier Conservation Area. This TFCA covers approximately 17,745 km² and includes the Lower Zambezi National Park in Zambia and Mana Pools National Park in Zimbabwe. The Governments of Zimbabwe, Mozambique and Zambia signed a memorandum of understanding during July 2024 to establish the Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and Zambia (ZIMOZA) Transfrontier Conservation Area. The ZIMOZA TFCA covers approximately 29,859 km². The World Heritage site is included within both transfrontier conservation areas. Why these two TFCAs overlap in area is not clear, and the advantages and disadvantages of including the World Heritage site within two TFCAs still need to be explained.
There is a need for the standards and procedures surrounding Environmental Impact Assessments for the development of tourism facilities within the site to be significantly improved. The assessments need to follow the appropriate IUCN guidelines (IUCN, 2013; Court et al., 2022) and be submitted to the World Heritage Centre, for review by IUCN before approval of the projects. Additionally, the detailed assessments also need to be available for scrutiny by stakeholders and rightsholders before approval of the projects.

Boundaries

Some Concern

Boundaries of the three individual protected areas are defined in the Parks and Wild Life Act 1975, using map grid references (to within 100 metres) and physical features such as rivers. Road boundaries are minimal and much of the boundary is not physically demarcated on the ground.

Overlapping international designations

Data Deficient

The entire World Heritage Site lies within the UNESCO Middle Zambezi Biosphere Reserve. Mana Pools NP is part of the core area of the Biosphere Reserve and Sapi SA and Chewore SA are part of the buffer zone of the Biosphere Reserve.
Mana Pools NP is also a Ramsar site (no. 2106).

In the Periodic Report of 2021, the State Party of Zimbabwe indicated that there is occasional communication between the authorities of the different internationally designated areas (State Party of Zimbabwe, 2021). However, the extent of the coordination between them is unknown.

Implementation of World Heritage Committee decisions and recommendations

Some Concern

In response to the 2018 State Party of Zimbabwe's State of Conservation report (State Party of Zimbabwe, 2018), the World Heritage Committee commended the State Party for substantial efforts to enhance the property's conservation status and requested that these are continued (UNESCO, 2018; World Heritage Committee, 2018). In particular, the State Party was encouraged to implement the Anti-Poaching Strategy and Elephant Management Plan and to continue reporting on progress. Furthermore, the State Party was encouraged to complete the General Management Plan and submit to this to World Heritage Committee and report on outcomes of research projects and other data on conservation metrics. Furthermore, a number of requests were made, these included those relating to the decision regarding the proposed Kangaluwi and Chisawa opencast mine in Lower Zambezi National Park which could have serious impacts on the property’s Outstanding Universal Value; and mapping and communication of the exact locations of proposed tourism developments. The state Party was also encouraged to work with the State Party of Zambia to finalize the Memorandum of Understanding for the Lower Zambezi-Mana Pools National Parks Trans-Frontier Conservation Area, and to request technical advice from the World Heritage Centre and IUCN as needed (World Heritage Committee, 2018). In reply, the State Party of Zimbabwe submitted a State Of Conservation report (State Party of Zimbabwe, 2021).
The World Heritage Committee (UNESCO 2021; World Heritage Committee, 2021) examined that response and welcomed the decline in elephant poaching; noted that some elephants are crossing the Zambezi River; and requested the State Party to ensure a coordinated approach with Zambia for elephant management. It also noted the translocation of 101 elephants to Sapi Safari Area and requested the State Party to ensure that future translocations are undertaken in accordance with international best practice, including the IUCN guidelines, to ensure an assessment of the suitability and risks before implementation. The WH Committee regretted that no update was provided on the status of other key species that constitute the Outstanding Universal Value (OUV) of the property; requested that the General Management Plan was finalised and submitted to the World Heritage Centre; requested clarification of the “buffer zone” as regards Sapi SA and northern Chewore SA; and requested that the State Party ensure that any activity that may have the potential to impact on the OUV of the property, including all proposed tourism infrastructure, be subject to an impact assessment in accordance with the Guidance and Toolkit for Impact Assessments in a World Heritage Context, prior to taking any decision that is difficult to reverse. The WH Committee also noted with concern reports that the State Party of Zambia has approved an open cast copper mine in the Lower Zambezi National Park and that several copper and gold mining operations may be developed in Lower Zambezi NP and Chiawa Game Management Area (CGMA).
In a State of Conservation report at the end of 2024 (State Party of Zimbabwe, 2024), the State Party informed the WH Committee that the Memorandum of Understanding for the establishment of the Lower Zambezi-Mana Pools National Parks Transfrontier Conservation Area was signed during 2023; and that the general management plans for Mana Pools NP, Sapi SA and Chewore SA had been completed. It reported the results of the WildCRU surveys of predators (Loveridge et al. 2024), of a 2022 boat survey of hippopotamus in the Zambezi River (Chakuya et al., 2024), and of the 2024 aerial survey of elephant and other large herbivores (Dunham et al., 2024). It explained that the “buffer zone” referred to two protected areas on the boundaries of the World Heritage site, namely Hurungwe Safari Area which lies to the west adjacent to Mana Pools NP, and Dande Safari Area, which lies to the east, adjacent to a section of Chewore SA. The State Party requested that questions regarding mining and prospecting in Zambia’s Lower Zambezi NP and Chiawa GMA be directed to the State Party of Zambia.

Climate action

Some Concern

Climate change and the likely consequences in the area (reduced rainfall, increased temperatures, more frequent floods and more frequent droughts) are noted in the Mana Pools NP Management Plan (2023). But the plan does not include specific provisions to protect the values of the site from the negative impacts of climate change, primarily because what actions are required is not yet known. Rainfall has been monitored at several sites in the World Heritage site since before the site’s World Heritage listing, but few sites record temperature. The site lacks effective monitoring and therefore there is little information available on the state of the site’s values. Consequently, there is also little information available on the causes of any changes in the site’s values. The site is not currently being managed to support and maximise the global response to climate action.

Management plan and overall management system

Some Concern

The Mana Pools National Park Management Plan (2023), the Sapi Safari Area Management Plan (2023) and the Chewore Safari Area Management Plan (2023) articulate the biodiversity protection and management needs, and address the key management needs including operational aspects of management, tourism management, zonation (including buffer zones), community outreach, awareness and other stakeholders. The management plans were given formal, ministerial approval during August 2023.
During November 2023, the ZPWMA and the Peace Parks Foundation (PPF) signed a co-management agreement for the so-called Greater Mana Pools Ecosystem, which covers 9,636 km², including all the World Heritage site as well as the adjacent Hurungwe SA. Through this agreement, a trust (the Greater Mana Pools Conservation Trust) will be established for management, capacity building and business development. The Trust will be overseen by a Board of Trustees composed of an equal number of representatives from ZPWMA and PPF. The management agreement lasts for 20 years.
More than one year after the agreement was signed, the board of trustees has yet to meet and the trust director has yet to be appointed. Nonetheless, Peace Parks Foundation has started preparation of another management plan for the Greater Mana Pools Ecosystem area, and ZPWMA has started ranger recruitment for the area, leading to the concern that the Trust has been effectively sidelined even before it is properly operational.
There is also concern about the area overlap in responsibilities between the Trust and Great Plain Foundation, which administers most of Sapi SA, and the Trust and Chewore Conservation Trust, which – since 2024 – has administered the southern Chewore SA.
The World Heritage site is managed from three stations: Nyamepi (in Mana Pools NP), Mkanga and Kapirinengu (both in Chewore SA), with oversight from Marongora (in Hurungwe SA) and Chinhoyi. At Nyamepi, Mkanga and Kapirinengu, many staff houses are in poor condition and in need of refurbishment (Management Plan Mana Pools NP, 2023; Management Plan Chewore SA, 2023).
Communications and management office spaces were improved at these stations through the Tashinga Initiative and other donors. More recently, the African Wildlife Foundation has facilitated the installation of digital radio equipment in Chewore SA under a CITES MIKE grant, in order to improve communication across this CITES MIKE site.
The ZAVARU Rapid Reaction Ranger Force base is operational on the western boundary of the World Heritage site at Nyakasanga and training and activities are supported by a number of NGOs. In addition, a coalition of stakeholders assist the ZPWMA with fuel and deployments for anti-poaching. Joint protection activities between Zambia and Zimbabwe include the sharing of boat patrols on the Zambezi River and of intelligence. AWF recently donated a new patrol boat to the ZPWMA for use on the river.
The current area-by-area management system could be perceived to be inefficient and not cost-effective (IUCN Consultation, 2020). However, recent initiatives – which are presumably intended to improve management in the Zambezi Valley - appear to be disjointed. For example, the “Greater Mana Ecosystem” (subject of a recent agreement between ZPWMA and PPF) includes Mana Pools NP, Sapi SA and Chewore SA; but the Lower Zambezi-Mana Pools Transfrontier Conservation Area (subject of another recent agreement) includes these three areas and Hurungwe SA. Also, the “Greater Mana Ecosystem” area overlaps two areas (Sapi SA and the southern Chewore concession) which are currently administered by other NGOs.
Ecosystem based management that includes the World Heritage site could be a way forward for the entire Zimbabwean Zambezi Valley, of which the World Heritage site is part. Communications between park management and the ZPWMA HQ could be improved, as could communications between stakeholders and the ZPWMA (IUCN Consultation, 2020) and between ZPWMA and the Zimbabwe public. Project management and delivery of of the various management plans remains poor (IUCN Consultation, 2025).

Law enforcement

Some Concern

The estimated number of elephants in Zimbabwe’s Zambezi Valley population declined from ~19,300 during 2001 to ~11,600 during 2014 (Dunham et al., 2015). The decline is reported to be mostly as result of the illegal killing of elephants (Zimbabwe Elephant Management Plan 2021-2025). However, ZPWMA estimates of the numbers of elephants illegally killed (Sibanda et al., 2016; Kuiper et al., 2020; 2021; Ngorima et al., 2022) are far too small to account for a decline of the magnitude of that observed.
Wildlife law enforcement is currently ongoing but there are resource constraints and inadequate human resources for it to be implemented effectively (Lindsey et al., 2018). The Anti-poaching Strategy (2015) is being implemented, as is the Zimbabwe Elephant Management Plan (2021-2025), with assistance from a number of NGOs. Chewore SA is a CITES MIKE monitoring site and the adjacent Mana Pools/Sapi “conservation area” is a second such site. Law enforcement has benefited from the provision of boats and all-terrain vehicles, fuel and rations, the construction of pickets (camps used by antipoaching patrols), the upgrading of the ZPWMA radio system from analogue to digital, the introduction of SMART (Spatial Monitoring and Reporting Tool) across the landscape, and training (Bann and Kujinga, 2021; Kavhu and Mpakairi, 2021). Kuiper et al. (2023) considered why adaptive management is not used more widely by ZPWMA managers in the World Heritage site to combat poaching. Law enforcement within the WHS has improved during the review period, supported by an increase in deployment vehicles provided by conservation organisations (according to the Zambezi Society and Bushlife Conservation Bulletins). However, capacity and operational effectiveness remain weak. Deployment strategies are predictable, relying on fixed fly-camps, while extended multi-night foot patrols have been discontinued. Remote areas without road access are not monitored. While anti-poaching efforts have contributed to reduced elephant poaching, broader economic and market factors are also at play, including for example, a decline in demand and black-market prices for ivory in China, lower illegal ivory prices within Zimbabwe. The recent joint venture between ZimParks and Peace Parks should prioritise leadership in field management and ranger training, using the Gonarezhou Conservation Trust model as a blueprint

Sustainable finance

Data Deficient

Recent tourism data from Mana Pools NP indicate that the number of international tourists has increased since a low during the Covid pandemic, but during 2023 it was not back to the pre-pandemic level. The number of domestic tourists has declined since 2021, probably in response to increased prices for camp sites and accommodation. Sustainable financing of Mana Pools NP was thought to be possible if revenue was retained and used on site, but it is not. High value sport hunting is carried out in Chewore Safari Area, but has been suspended in Sapi Safari Area, by agreement between ZPWMA and the present concession holder in favour of photographic tourism.

Staff capacity, training and development

Mostly Effective

The WH site currently has 120 staff distributed in the three protected areas. This figure does not take into account management staff based in the Hurungwe SA (Marongora) or further south at the Regional HQ in Chinhoyi. Various ranger training courses have been conducted during recent years, including: ZPWMA radio technicians undergoing a refresher course on the use and maintenance of the new radio system; training of additional ZPWMA rangers in use of SMART and the associated equipment (Kavhu and Mpakairi, 2021); and a boat coxswain training course and an advanced coxswain training course (in partnership with the Boat Squadron of the Zimbabwe National Army) for rangers undertaking boat patrols on the Zambezi River. Training has targeted both women and men rangers.

Education and interpretation programmes

Some Concern

Conservation and education programmes for the WHS could benefit from significant expansion and improvement. The management plan for Mana Pools NP requires that conservation education is improved. The plan states that a concession has been issued inside Mana Pools to establish an educational facility (similar to the Rifa Conservation Education Camp near Chirundu). But the plan points out that such establishments may fare better close to main road access (as is the Rifa camp), rather than being in the middle of a national park, at the end of a bad road and compromising the wilderness qualities of a World Heritage Site and Mana Pools National Park. Such a facility would need significant infrastructure and generally have a negative human impact on the environment.

Tourism and visitation management

Some Concern

Although tourism numbers to Mana Pools National Park were relatively stable at around 10,000 per annum during the late 1990s, numbers subsequently dropped owing to political and economic instability within the country (Mana Pools NP Management Plan 2023). There was a severe drop in visitor numbers during 2020 as international travel was curtailed by the COVID 19 pandemic. During 2022 and 2023, the number of tourists to Mana Pools NP was reported to be 5,000-6,000 (Zimbabwe Tourism Authority, 2022; 2023). The cost of visiting Mana has increased and this, coupled with a perceived loss of wildness feel and access along the river and alluvium has resulted in a decline in domestic tourism. Local tourism has sustained many parks in the past when visits by high-paying foreign tourists declined. Tourists in Mana Pools are managed through park regulations and several "codes of conduct". However, uptake of these codes of conduct has been disappointing. Safari hunters are expected to abide by regulations for conduct, ethical hunting and hunt management and administration. Although the number of vehicles entering Mana Pools NP was regulated during the 1980s, the current tourism management system does not limit vehicle numbers and each camp can have at least five vehicles. The Mana Pools NP management plan (2023) details the tourism facilities in the park, with ZPWMA managing one public campsite, 15 special campsites, five lodges and five tented camps. Although the previous management plan specified limits on the proliferation of river camps, pressure for income by ZPWMA and from private developers has led to a significant increase of camps along the Zambezi River, with an additional six facilities and 134 beds during the last 10 years. Notably two of these camps were sited in what was previously the Nyamatusi Wilderness Zone, an area where development was not permitted and use of which was restricted. The proliferation of camps along the Zambezi River has limited access to the river for the general tourist. The Zambezi alluvial woodlands, where most tourism is concentrated, are very small (less than 100 km2) and it does not take long before the area becomes overcrowded, especially during peak periods, mainly over public holidays. The number of vehicles in the alluvial woodlands can be considerable, leading to overcrowding and high vehicle encounter rates. Concerns have been voiced about the degradation of the visitor experience, which could lead to negative publicity which could, in turn, affect tourist arrivals. Mana Pools NP has long been regarded as a key area for Zimbabwe citizens to visit, but this has become an issue with the proliferation of camps and the restricted access to the Zambezi River. The problem of reconciling low income citizen use with higher earning exclusive camps catering for foreigners needs to be addressed. Since 2007, seven leases have been given by the ZPWMA to private camp operators based at seasonal pans in the central and southern zones of the valley floor section of Mana Pools NP, in keeping with the recommendations in the (unapproved) management plan from 2009. In the past, the use of power boats and fishing from boats was not permitted within Mana Pools NP mainly because of disturbance and noise issues. However, this situation changed during 2008 when the then management plan advocated a trial wet season fishing and boat access experiment. The experiment still continues today. During the dry season, boat use is restricted but transfers are allowed and a houseboat-based company traverses the river. In addition, motor boat use is permitted on the Zambian side with few restrictions. During 2021, the development of a 24 bed fishing camp at the eastern edge of the park (Chitembe) was permitted where two 12 bed camps with three boats each have fishing permits for the 1 km of riverfront which represents their lease. Pressure from the operator has since seen this fishing area increase in size. The Mana Pools NP management plan (2023) states the need for the park’s “tourism product” to be upgraded and for the management and administration of tourism by ZPWMA to be improved and it lists strategies and activities to achieve these aims. Independent research is required to ascertain the degree of degradation of the "tourism product" for both Zimbabwe low end users as well as foreign visitors.

Sustainable use

Some Concern

Sport hunting in Zimbabwe is undertaken through an adaptive quota setting process run by the Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority. Quotas are set in consultation with stakeholders, based on species information which includes information on the following: - population estimates, distribution patterns, trophy quality. Also assessed if necessary is information on natural mortality and disease mortality. Ground based assessments will be carried out if circumstances require. However, the declines of key species and especially buffalo in the safari areas could be an indication that quotas were not sustainable in the past. The failure of ZPWMA to publish in full the hunting quotas, the actual hunting offtakes, the other offtakes and the trophy sizes and ages (Muboko et al., 2021) prevents independent scrutiny of the biological sustainability of the offtakes.

Monitoring

Some Concern

Monitoring of the WHS is limited in scope and extent and the area does not have a comprehensive monitoring and research plan that can be implemented. Monitoring effectiveness is also hampered by the lack of a comprehensive baseline for the area. Zimbabwe conducted a national aerial survey of elephants and other large mammals during 2014 (Dunham et al., 2015) and surveys of the populations of elephant and other large herbivores in Zimbabwe’s Zambezi Valley (which includes the World Heritage site) were repeated during 2021 and 2024 as part of the UNDP-funded GEF project (Dunham and Nyaguse, 2021; Dunham et al., 2024). Survey frequency has decreased since the 1980s, primarily due to funding constraints. It is unclear when the next survey will be undertaken. Basic monitoring systems that should be in place are hampered by funding, leadership and equipment constraints. For example there are no long-term ground estimates of wildlife apart from an annual count of wildlife in the Zambezi alluvial woodlands by civil society (Dunham and du Toit, 2012). A plethora of basic data is available, or could be easily captured by an intern or student. AI can be used to compile the data ready for analysis. There is no evidence to support the operationalization of SMART, except for the Chewore MIKES site. The success of SMART requires management commitment as well as ongoing IT interventions.

Research

Some Concern

The current research and monitoring projects in the World Heritage site (PWMA, 2024) include: the movement patterns of iconic elephant bulls (Mukomberanwa et al., 2024b) and of translocated elephants; the movements of large carnivores; the monitoring of alien plant species; the assessment of the diversity of aquatic species in water bodies away from the Zambezi river; as well as research and monitoring of the African wild dog (Painted dog conservation, 2023). Resource constraints remain a challenge.
The priorities for future research include the following (Mana Pools Management Plan 2023):
1) Numbers and spatial distribution of herbivores. Priority species include elephant, buffalo, nyala, roan, sable, waterbuck and eland, as their numbers appear to be declining. Elephants represent a special case because of their ability to modify the woody vegetation. Hippo may also be vegetation modifiers close to the Zambezi River.
2) Establishment and monitoring of the status and species interactions of large predators. Some research has been carried out, mainly on lions and African wild dog, but some of these studies are outdated and some are inconclusive; techniques to include the collaring of predators as part of a comprehensive assessment, not on an ad hoc basis, need to be established.
3) Aquatic research on the Zambezi River. Most of the fish studies were initiated from the Zambian side; Surveys on hippos and crocodiles in the Zambezi River have been carried out in the past, but these need to be continued and expanded.
4) Reintroduction and restocking. Assessment of proposed reintroductions should be at the ecosystem level, rather than on a case by case basis; restocking aims to boost the number of a species that is declining - proper and detailed assessments need to be carried out before any restocking exercises are considered; monitoring protocols for released animals should be in place and the results of these could inform future proposals; proposals for translocations of species outside their known range (e.g. giraffe and wildebeest) should not be considered.
5) Vegetation studies. There has been significant mortality of Faidherbia albida trees in parts of the Zambezi alluvial woodlands and some areas of mopane woodland appear to contain only dead trees; An emerging vegetation issue is the effects of artificial supplies of drinking water during the dry season and this needs to be monitored carefully and managed if necessary; Climate change is also expected affect vegetation and needs to be considered in all new research programmes; In addition, the effects of the key habitat modifier species (elephant and hippo) needs to be assessed and monitored; Long-term vegetation changes need to be monitored and their causes identified and assessed.
Additional research priorities were identified by the Zambezi Society (2024): Preparing an updated soil and vegetation map of the mid-Zambezi Valley; Hydrology and water management studies, including the impacts of upstream activities (human settlement, deforestation, mining); and studies of long term vegetation change and trends in the valley landscape during the last 70 years, as revealed by aerial photography and satellite imagery.

Effectiveness of management system and governance in addressing threats outside the site

Some Concern

Some potential threats from outside the site emanate from across the international border in Zambia, where inappropriate riverbank tourism developments, artisanal fishing and upstream mining could occur. The establishment of the Lower Zambezi-Mana Pools Transfrontier Conservation Area during May 2023 provides the opportunity for greater cooperation and coordination between the two conservation authorities on either side of the Zambezi River. Inside Zimbabwe, there is increasing human settlement and land conversion for tobacco close to the southern boundary. Poaching and illegal wildlife trade are major threats that may have led to a serious decline in the population estimates for elephant and other species. Legal and illegal mining both outside and inside of the site also pose real threats to the property. While human-wildlife conflict (HWC) occurs outside the WHS, it remains a significant issue in buffer zones and adjacent areas. Conservation organisations increasingly have a responsibility to engage in conflict mitigation, community training, and awareness-building. Documented successes by a a few PVO's —working in collaboration with local councils and ZimParks—demonstrate that practical interventions can be effective in reducing conflict in targeted areas.

Effectiveness of management system and governance in addressing threats inside the site

Serious Concern

Both illegal and legal mining inside the site pose real threats to the property. Several NGOs provide the ZPWMA with support for law enforcement and ranger welfare, and this assistance significantly increases the effectiveness of antipoaching operations. With good governance and the support of the government of Zimbabwe, illegal mining could also be dealt with. The threat posed by legal mining can be addressed by the management system only with the support of the government. The threats to the site arising from the management system, such as inappropriate tourism developments within the property (especially when seasonal supplies of drinking water are converted into year-round supplies) and inappropriate translocations of large mammals could potentially be addressed relatively easily. However, it is possible that these these threats may be linked to management priorities.

Overall assessment of protection and management

State and trend of values

Assessing the current state and trend of values

Diverse bird fauna

Low Concern

Trend

Stable

Although comprehensive data are lacking, the rich bird fauna is considered to remain essentially intact and the diversity of habitats is being maintained. The proposed damaging developments, particularly oil and gas exploration, however pose a serious risk to the avifauna according to Birdlife International (Birdlife, 2023).

Important populations of a diversity of large mammals and other fauna and threatened species

High Concern

Trend

Deteriorating

The important populations of large mammals remain but some have shown significant declines during the last two decades. Using aerial counts along the Zambezi River, hippopotamus number was estimated at between 4,000 and 5,000 between 1996 and 2002 (Monks, 2005) and at ~6,500 during 2023 (with ~4,500 of these in the section of river on the northern boundary of the World Heritage site). The elephant population, estimated from aerial surveys, has declined in the World Heritage site from more than 11,000 during 2001 and 2003 (Mackie, 2002; Dunham, 2004), to less than 7,000 during 2014, 2021 and 2024 (Dunham et al., 2015; Dunham and Nyaguse, 2021; Dunham et al., 2024). These estimates are a cause for considerable concern. The trend in buffalo number in the World Heritage site shows a decline from ~8,000 animals during 2001 to less than 5,000 during 2014, 2021 and 2024. The Chewore and Sapi areas showed a decline from ~5,000 buffalo during 2001 and 2003 to less than 1,000 during 2014, 2021 and 2024. Other species are also a cause for concern. In most cases, the declines were more evident in Sapi and Chewore Safari Areas than in Mana Pools NP. Camera trap surveys during 2022 indicated 75-117 lion, 108-159 leopard and 23-47 African wild dog in Mana Pools NP (Loveridge et al., 2024). While the numbers of lion and leopard remained relatively stable between 2015 and 2022, the number of African wild dog declined significantly. Within the entire World Heritage site during 2022/2023, there were estimated to be ~191 lion, ~380 leopard and ~69 African wild dog. The spotted hyaena was common in the site, but the brown hyaena was not detected during the 2022/2023 survey. The cheetah occurs, probably naturally, at very low densities in the site.

Black rhino refuge

Critical

Trend

Data Deficient

The black rhinoceros disappeared from the site within ten years of its inscription. Most were poached, but some were translocated to other areas within Zimbabwe (Lowveld Rhino Trust, 2023). Site security is still considered inadequate to attempt a re-introduction, although it remains a strong hope for the future.

Seasonal movements of large mammals

Data Deficient

Trend

Data Deficient

The seasonal movements of large mammals are considered intact, but detailed information on this remains patchy and anecdotal. It is known that the movements still occur, but by a reduced number of animals.

Riverine sandbank ecosystems

Low Concern

Trend

Deteriorating

Vegetation succession and the ecological processes associated with the flood regime of the Zambezi River were irreversibly altered during 1958 by the construction of the Kariba Dam approximately 110 km upstream of the site. It is difficult to speculate on the course of changes that would be taking place without the Dam, as seasonal flooding is now severely limited. Nevertheless, within the context of the ‘new’ (man-made) situation (which prevailed at the time of inscription), the natural ecological processes and vegetation succession associated with the sandbanks, islands and alluvial terraces are undisturbed. However, during recent years, concerns have been expressed at the low recruitment level of the iconic Faidherbia albida trees, as well as the paucity of grass. But during the last 40 years, large stands of Faidherbia albida trees have become established on sandbanks on the northern boundary of the World Heritage site, on the Zambian side of the Zambezi River, just northwards of the Sapi SA. Very recently, the level of the Zambezi River in the Middle Zambezi has been very low, because of reduced power generation at Kariba and at Kafue Gorge.

Spectacular animal congregations

Low Concern

Trend

Stable

Although the aerial surveys indicate significant declines of key species in the World Heritage site, there are anecdotal reports that the wildlife concentrations in the Mana alluvial woodlands still occur and remain relatively stable (Dunham and du Toit, 2012). The large herds of buffalo are have seldom been seen or reported on the floodplain during this review period (IUCN Consultation, 2025). Mostly likely due to the lack of grazing.

Summary of values

Assessment of the current state and trend of World Heritage values

High Concern

Deteriorating

Assessment of the current state and trend of other important biodiversity values

Good

Stable

The landscape gradient in Mana Pools NP, already lost elsewhere in the Middle Zambezi Valley with the flooding caused by dams at Kariba and Cabora Bassa, will be lost if a dam is built in Mupata Gorge.

Assessment of the current state and trend of other important values

Good

Stable

Additional information

Benefits

Understanding benefits

Carbon sequestration,

Soil stabilisation,

Water provision (importance for water quantity and quality)

The World Heritage site is the core component of a much larger network of protected areas spanning both sides of the Zambezi River. As such its designation as a World Heritage site improves the conservation value of the surrounding areas. The protected area system in Zimbabwe’s mid Zambezi Valley covers almost 13,000 km2 and represents a significant biodiversity resource for the country and the region.

Factors negatively affecting provision of this benefit

Climate change

Impact level - Low

Pollution

Impact level - Low

Trend - Increasing

Overexploitation

Impact level - Low

Invasive species

Impact level - Low

Trend - Increasing

Habitat change

Impact level - Low

Trend - Increasing

Many of these are data deficient

Summary of benefits

The WH site is the core component of a much larger network of protected areas spanning both sides of the Zambezi River. As such its designation as a WHS improves the conservation value of the surrounding areas. The mid Zambezi valley protected area system in Zimbabwe covers almost 13,000 km2 and represents a significant biodiversity resource for the country and the region

Projects

Compilation of active conservation projects

№	Organization	Brief description of Active Projects	Website
1	Zambezi Society	Lobbying. Assists PWMA with wildlife protection, research, education, human wildlife conflict, raining and fuel.	www.zamsoc.org
2	Tashinga Initiative	Support to PWMA for anti-poaching and law enforcement infrastructure; training; VHF radio and internet communications; food security; and ranger community welfare.	https://tashinga.org/
3	Zambezi Elephant Fund	Funding and resources allocation to NGOs in support of ZPWMA. A voice to the world for the landscape.	https://www.zambezielephantfund.org/
4	Flying for Wildlife	Ad hoc flying of ZPWMA staff for reconnaissance patrols.	https://flyingforwildlife.org/
5	Painted Dog Conservation	African Wild Dog Research, Anti-poaching, Community work	https://www.painteddog.org/
6	Natural Capital	Conservation project, including anti-poaching, planned to cover the Rifa section of Hurungwe SA. (In effect, Natural Capital has taken over the former Rhino Force project in the same area).	https://www.naturalcapital.earth/zambezi-collective
7	African Wildlife Foundation	Anti-poaching support to ZPWMA. ZPWMA staff training. Provision of boat for river patrols; and provision of vehicles in Hurungwe Safari Area.	https://www.awf.org/
8	Wildlife Conservation Research Unit (WildCRU)	Camera trap surveys of predators	https://www.wildcru.org/
9	Akashinga	Anti-poaching and community work by women rangers on southern boundary.	https://www.akashinga.org/
10	Zambezi Valley Conservation Network	Launched during 2020. Aims to connect and support stakeholders through information gathering and sharing, as well as mobilising resources to support the key conservation stakeholders where there is a need.	https://www.zambezinetwork.org/
11	Peace Parks Foundation	Partnered with ZPWMA in a 20 year co-management agreement for the sustainable development and management of the Greater Mana Pools Ecosystem (GMPE), which includes the World Heritage site as well as Hurungwe SA. Under this agreement, a special non-profit and tax efficient legal entity incorporated in Zimbabwe, the Greater Mana Pools Conservation Trust, will be created and delegated the management and development of the GMPE. The Trust will be overseen by a Board of Trustees composed of an equal number of representatives from ZPWMA and PPF.	https://www.peaceparks.org/parks/mana-pools/
12	Bushlife	Anti-poaching, African wild dog research, Monitoring and Tracking, Infrastructure Development, Community Outreach.	https://bushlife-conservancy.org/ [Could not be accessed on 13 January 2025].

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Indigenous Heritage values

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