New Zealand Sub-Antarctic Islands
Country
New Zealand
Inscribed in
1998
Criteria
(ix)
(x)
The conservation outlook for this site has been assessed as "good" in the latest assessment cycle. Explore the Conservation Outlook Assessment for the site below. You have the option to access the summary, or the detailed assessment.
The New Zealand Sub-Antarctic Islands consist of five island groups (the Snares, Bounty Islands, Antipodes Islands, Auckland Islands and Campbell Island) in the Southern Ocean south-east of New Zealand. The islands, lying between the Antarctic and Subtropical Convergences and the seas, have a high level of productivity, biodiversity, wildlife population densities and endemism among birds, plants and invertebrates. They are particularly notable for the large number and diversity of pelagic seabirds and penguins that nest there. There are 126 bird species in total, including 40 seabirds of which five breed nowhere else in the world. © UNESCO
Summary
2020 Conservation Outlook
Finalised on
07 Sep 2021
Good
Current state and trend of VALUES
Low Concern
Overall THREATS
Overall PROTECTION and MANAGEMENT
Full assessment
Description of values
Exceptional diversity and abundance of birds
Criterion
(x)
The New Zealand Sub-Antarctic Islands are particularly notable for the abundance and diversity of pelagic seabirds and penguins that utilise the islands for breeding. The property supports the most diverse community of breeding seabirds in the Southern Ocean. There are 126 species of birds, including 40 seabirds, eight of which breed nowhere else in the world. The islands support major populations of 10 of the world’s 22 species of albatross and almost 2 million sooty shearwaters nest on Snares Island alone. Land birds also display a surprising diversity, considering the limited land area available, with a large number of threatened endemics including one of the world’s rarest ducks (World Heritage Committee, 2012).
Of particular significance are the most diverse community of seabirds in the world with eight species endemic to the region; including four species of albatross, three species of cormorants (one of which, the Bounty Island shag, is the world’s rarest cormorant) and one species of penguin; 15 endemic land birds including snipe, parakeets and teal (World Heritage Committee, 2012).
Of particular significance are the most diverse community of seabirds in the world with eight species endemic to the region; including four species of albatross, three species of cormorants (one of which, the Bounty Island shag, is the world’s rarest cormorant) and one species of penguin; 15 endemic land birds including snipe, parakeets and teal (World Heritage Committee, 2012).
Distinctive examples of evolutionary processes which result in high levels of endemism
Criterion
(ix)
Isolation, climatic factors and seven degrees of latitudinal spread have combined to significantly influence the biota of the New Zealand Sub-Antarctic Islands. Consequently they provide scientific insights into the evolutionary processes affecting widely-spread oceanic islands, varying from relatively mature endemic forms to relatively immature taxa, constituting a fascinating laboratory for the study of genetic variation, speciation and adaptation, particularly in the Insulantarctic biogeographic province. Evolutionary processes, such as the loss of flight in birds and invertebrates, offer unique opportunities for research into island dynamics and ecology (World Heritage Committee, 2012).
Preponderance of ‘megaherbs’ within the plant biodiversity
Criterion
(ix)
Another outstanding feature is the preponderance of ‘megaherbs’ within the plant biodiversity. These large herbs, often with brightly coloured flowers, are considered to display unique evolutionary adaptation to the distinctive Sub-Antarctic climate – with its cloud cover (and lack of solar radiation), lack of frosts, strong winds and high nutrient levels (derived from seabird transference of nutrients) (World Heritage Committee, 2012).
Rich flora
Criterion
(x)
Together with neighbouring Macquarie Island, the New Zealand Sub-Antarctic Islands represent a Centre of Plant Diversity and have the richest flora of all the Sub-Antarctic Islands with 35 endemic taxa. The ‘megaherbs’ are unique to the property and Macquarie Island. The Snares Group and two of the Auckland Islands are of particular biodiversity conservation significance due to the absence of any human and exotic species modification (World Heritage Committee, 2012).
Outstanding array of endemic and threatened species among the marine fauna
Criterion
(x)
The New Zealand Sub-Antarctic Islands, and the ocean that surrounds and links them, support an extraordinary and outstanding array of endemic and threatened species among the marine fauna, land birds, and invertebrates. As a group they are distinct from all other island groups, having breeding sites of the world’s rarest sea lion (the New Zealand (or Hooker’s) sea lion) and a significant breeding population of the southern right whale (World Heritage Committee, 2012).
Assessment information
Currently the major threats to the World Heritage site are from outside including climate change and invasive species threats. Current management policies manage internal threats well but any relaxation of those policies, such as biosecurity and access controls, will raise the threat level. Strengthened biosecurity measures and proposals to manage tourism impacts are spelled out in the Conservation Management Strategy, 2016-2026. Active monitoring and management of invasive species continues within the site. The aspiration to eradicate all invasive mammal species from the islands by 2025 is commendable and should be strongly encouraged with ongoing efforts towards this objective and monitoring of impacts from climate change should be a focus to detect any signs of specific impacts on the values of the site.
Ocean acidification, Temperature extremes
(Climate change)
Inside site
, Throughout(>50%)
Outside site
Global climate changes are likely to not only have an impact on temperatures but also impacts on oceanic systems by impacting currents, ocean acidity levels, nutrient availability and organism distribution. As the ecosystem of the site relies heavily on oceanic nutrients any change is likely to negatively impact both individual species and the overall ecosystem.
Increased rainfall induced by climate change, may also increase impact on the flora of the site and increase the risk of erosion. It is recognized that as global temperatures increase, new habitats, both terrestrial and marine, could potentially become more suitable for introduced species, upsetting any current balance between native and introduced species and allowing the establishment of new species further modifying these fragile ecosystems.
The potential for increased impacts from invasive species in the future due to climate change is also a key reason for maintaining the highest bio-security possible to avoid new species, which are not currently deemed a major threat, from establishing. How species already present on the island will be affected by changing climate will require further research with some invasive plants benefiting from the changes through faster growth and others potentially being impacted through reduced fruiting or reproduction (Palmer et al., 2018).
It is difficult to establish the impacts from climate change on the site but they are likely to increase. Research on the islands to test options for high resolution temperature data have been undertaken and will assist with detecting any changes in temperature (Leihy et al., 2018).
Increased rainfall induced by climate change, may also increase impact on the flora of the site and increase the risk of erosion. It is recognized that as global temperatures increase, new habitats, both terrestrial and marine, could potentially become more suitable for introduced species, upsetting any current balance between native and introduced species and allowing the establishment of new species further modifying these fragile ecosystems.
The potential for increased impacts from invasive species in the future due to climate change is also a key reason for maintaining the highest bio-security possible to avoid new species, which are not currently deemed a major threat, from establishing. How species already present on the island will be affected by changing climate will require further research with some invasive plants benefiting from the changes through faster growth and others potentially being impacted through reduced fruiting or reproduction (Palmer et al., 2018).
It is difficult to establish the impacts from climate change on the site but they are likely to increase. Research on the islands to test options for high resolution temperature data have been undertaken and will assist with detecting any changes in temperature (Leihy et al., 2018).
Household Sewage/ Urban Waste Water
(Pollution)
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Increased waste management issues, especially sewage and waste water, become a greater issue with increased visitor numbers and duration, and especially the researchers and managers who stay on the islands. Tourists are not permitted to stay overnight and it is important this restriction is maintained. There were reports of a proposed research station at the Auckland Islands which may result in pollution impacts (Department of Conservation, 2014). The Conservation Management Strategy prohibits the disposal of non-biodegradable waste on the islands and only permits the disposal of biodegradable waste in such a way to avoid any adverse effects (Department of Conservation, 2016). The Regional Coastal Plan: Kermadec and Subantarctic Islands which has been in process since 2011 was completed in September 2017 and includes strict regulations in regard to visits, research and removal of waste (Department of Conservation, 2017c). The purpose of this plan is to promote the sustainable management of the natural and physical resources of the coastal marine area including the World Heritage site and surrounding territorial waters (IUCN Consultation, 2017; Department of Conservation, 2017c). The risk of oil spills is noted in the Conservation Management Strategy, which specifies measures to protect against oil spills and other marine sourced pollution (Department of Conservation, 2017c).
Fishing, Harvesting & Controlling Aquatic Species
(Commercial fishing)
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
Outside site
While resource exploitation is tightly restricted over most of the site through legislative controls, there are still some areas open to commercial fishing which poses risks to native species (marine mammals and seabirds) through competition for food species and bycatch. The endangered New Zealand sea lion, Phocarctos hookeri, is one species that is affected as bycatch with other management actions required to aleviate the impacts on the population (Hamilton and Baker, 2019). Impacts of bycatch are also true for fishing well outside the site as many of the species forage widely including within the waters of other nations’ (New Zealand Government, 2013). At the time of inscription, only one island group had a marine reserve (Auckland Islands). Additional marine reserves have been established to improve conservation. Four marine reserves now exist within the World Heritage site: Antipodes Island, Auckland Islands, Bounty Islands and Campbell Island. These better protect marine values and the connectivity between marine and terrestrial systems (Department of Conservation, 2017b).
Recreational Activities
(Increasing impact from tourism)
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
In general, this site consists of soft peat soils which are very vulnerable to erosion once the covering vegetation is damaged. To date, this has been managed by restricting the locations tourists can visit and hardening (installing boardwalks in two locations) where higher numbers are permitted. Commercially run expeditions have been running to the islands since the 1970s/80s (State Party of New Zealand, 1997) and continue to be conducted to various places in the World Heritage site (Heritage Expeditions, 2017). Previously, concerns were raised about proposed plans to substantially increase both visitor sites and numbers, due to the biosecurity risks and potential damage to fragile ecosystems (IUCN Consultation, 2017). French et al. (2018) found levels of tourism are likely to be impacting the population of Yellow-eyes Penguin (Megadyptes antipodes) on Enderby Island in the Auckland Group. The Conservation Management Strategy (CMS) 2016-2026 commits to the continued practice of a Department of Conservation official accompanying every voyage where people land on the islands (Department of Conservation, 2011; Department of Conservation, 2016). However, the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in significantly reduced tourism globally and it will need to be evaluated how tourism levels recover in the future.
Invasive Non-Native/ Alien Species
(Invasive species)
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
Following the eradication of goats, cattle, sheep and rabbits on these islands, the majority of islands are free of introduced mammals, with the exception of Auckland Island (pigs, cats and mice) (Department of Conservation, 2016; McClelland, 2011; Miskelly and Fraser, 2006). A mice eradication programme was carried out on the Antipodes Island in the winter of 2016 (Million Dollar Mouse Initiative, 2017) and has since been declared as a success (Broome et al., 2019; Horn, Greene and Elliott, 2019). The eradication of pigs, cats and mice has been proposed for the Auckland Islands and the feasibility of this is currently being undertaken. The New Zealand Government has announced an ambitious target to eradicate all rats, stoats and possums from New Zealand by 2050 in a proposal called Predator Free New Zealand 2050. This programme has an interim target of complete removal of all introduced predators from offshore island nature reserves by 2025 (Department of Conservation, 2017a).
Weed species are present on several of the islands. These are not being actively managed unless it is considered that they will endanger the island ecosystems. Olearia lyallii in the Auckland Islands has recently been determined to have arrived by humans and is therefore considered an alien species. It is being monitored to determine its potential impact on the island ecosystems (Wilmshurst, McGlone and Turney, 2015).
A comprehensive biosecurity programme is managed by the Department of Conservation for all expeditions visiting and landing on the islands to minimize the risk of introduced species. Extremely rigorous biosecurity practices apply to any visitors making landfall (RadioNZ, 2017).
Weed species are present on several of the islands. These are not being actively managed unless it is considered that they will endanger the island ecosystems. Olearia lyallii in the Auckland Islands has recently been determined to have arrived by humans and is therefore considered an alien species. It is being monitored to determine its potential impact on the island ecosystems (Wilmshurst, McGlone and Turney, 2015).
A comprehensive biosecurity programme is managed by the Department of Conservation for all expeditions visiting and landing on the islands to minimize the risk of introduced species. Extremely rigorous biosecurity practices apply to any visitors making landfall (RadioNZ, 2017).
If current management controls are kept in place and tightened as per the current Conservation Management Strategy (e.g. controls on visitor numbers and restrictions on available sites as well as tight biosecurity) then the level of threats will remain low. Continued monitoring and adaptive management intervention will be needed to safeguard the site from marine based threats such as oil spills and marine litter.
Other Human Disturbances
(Possible relaxing of restrictions on helicopter access)
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
Concerns have previously been raised about possible relaxing of restrictions on helicopter access to the islands, most notably to the Auckland Islands. The current CMS outlines tightened aircraft use and management. All aircraft landings require an entry permit and permanent restricted airspace areas have been prescribed pursuant to Civil Aviation Rules, which mean that all overflights (up to 3,500 feet AMSL) over the islands require the permission of Department of Conservation (Department of Conservation, 2016).
99% of the World Heritage site, including all the land area, is under the management of the Department of Conservation (Department of Conservation, 2012; Department of Conservation, 2017c). This results in an integrated management system for all the islands, which works well. The site has a current management plan, the CMS, for 2016-2026, and has been incorporated into the larger Southland Murihiku region. The strategy outlines goals and outcomes specific to the site including the preparation, implementation and regular review of the visitor management plan.
While a formal management effectiveness assessment appears not to have been undertaken for the site, it is believed that as long as the current effective management programme is maintained, including high biosecurity standards, the removal of invasive species and tight management of tourism, the values of the site will be maintained or enhanced. Department of Conservation intends to eradicate invasive animals from these islands within the term of the current CMS as logistics and resources allow (Department of Conservation, 2016).
The boundaries of the site are the reasonable maximum 12 km into the marine ecosystem, which is near the limit of territorial waters at 12 nm. There is one marine mammal sanctuary around the Auckland Islands, and four marine reserves around (all or parts of) the Antipodes Island Group, the Auckland Islands, the Bounty Islands and Campbell Island (Department of Conservation, 2016).
The World Heritage site is well integrated into the national planning system. The CMS encompasses a wider system of protected lands including areas on the adjoining mainland. Management of the marine area is integrated through the development and implementation of the Regional Coastal Plan – Kermadec and Sub-Antarctic Islands, which fits under the National Coastal Plan. The Regional Coastal Plan provides rules that control structures, disturbance, deposition and reclamation and measures to address potential impact from oil spills (Department of Conservation, 2017c).
A strong emphasis is placed on managing all protected areas in New Zealand in close cooperation with and respecting the rights of traditional owners (Davies et al., 2018). Whilst there are no resident human populations on the islands these efforts are also supported for the World Heritage site. Ngāi Tahu are the ‘tangata whenua’ with ‘rangatiratanga’ or tribal authority over the area covered by the Conservation Management Strategy. They are Department of Conservation’s primary partner under the Treaty of Waitangi. Communities have indicated interest in initiating or leading conservation programmes in the site (known as “Subantarctic Ngā Moutere O Murihiku Ki Tonga Place”) (Department of Conservation, 2016) and are increasingly being involved in protected area planning (Davies et al., 2018).
The terrestrial areas have the highest available legal protection (National Nature Reserve) in New Zealand and most of the marine area also has the highest available marine protection with the level of marine protection significantly increased with the creation of additional marine reserves (Department of Conservation, 2012; Department of Conservation, 2017c). However, the interpretation of the legal protection of the land area is sometimes variable (New Zealand Government, 2013).
Visitation to the World Heritage site is strictly controlled through a permit system and all tourism access is by guided tour. Control of shipping may present some challenges given the vast areas between the individual islands and marine reserves as does enforcement of regulations in regard to fishing activities.
At the time of inscription, the World Heritage Committee expressed its concern “over the integrity of the marine area and the conservation of the marine resources” (IUCN, 1998; World Heritage Committee, 1998). Since inscription there has been increased protection of the marine habitat within the site with additional no-take marine reserves around the Antipodes (full), Bounty (partial) and Campbell (partial with programmed review) being protected. Following inscription rats have been removed from Campbell Island and plans are in place to remove mice from the Antipodes. Greater effort needs to go into removing pigs and cats from the Auckland Islands as planned in the site’s CMS (Department of Conservation, 2016). The programmed Moutere Ihupuku / Campbell Island Marine Reserve review was completed in 2020, with the outcome that the Marine Reserve will not be extended to the remaining 61 percent of the island group’s territorial sea under the Sub-Antarctic Islands Marine Reserves Act. Following inscription rats have been removed from Campbell Island and mice have been removed from Antipodes Island. Work has progressed to assess the feasibility of the removal of mice, pigs and cats from the main Auckland Island (IUCN Consultation, 2020).
There is little resource exploitation of the site. Fishing inside the boundaries of the World Heritage site is not allowed where the World Heritage site overlaps with the Marine Reserve. The World Heritage status applies to the marine environment out to 12 nm from each island group. For Auckland Islands and Antipodes Islands that area is fully protected by the marine reserve. Around the Bounty Islands and Campbell Islands it is partially protected by the marine reserve, meaning fishing could occur in the areas not overlapped by marine reserve. The Snares Island does not have marine reserve around it, meaning fishing could occur within the 12 nm surrounding it (IUCN Consultation, 2020). Efforts are also being made to reduce impacts of fishing on marine species that occur in the site but could also be affected by fishing outside the boundaries.
Funding for the site is provided by the national government and is managed through the Department of Conservation. This is supported by revenue from tourist operations, which are highly variable. Major projects such as eradications are funded on a one-off basis. Overall funding is considered adequate.
The site is managed from the Department of Conservation’s Invercargill office, and staff training and development is nationally coordinated to meet local needs.
The Department of Conservation works with other organisations and groups to provide opportunities for students to visit the site. As most visitors to the island travel as part of organised tours, they receive on-site interpretation which is generally of high quality. As all visitors to the site require an entry permit they are provided with background information on the islands including the marine ecosystem, expected behaviours when on the islands and on biosecurity. The requirement for all tourists to be accompanied by an approved government representative also provides the opportunity for one-on-one interpretation although the degree to which this is taken up varies between tourist operators.
At the time of nomination, about 10 ships were reported as visiting the islands each year and a limit of 600 tourists per site per season was imposed (State Party of New Zealand, 1997). The CMS provides strict limits on daily and annual visitor numbers to key sites within the World Heritage site (Department of Conservation, 2016). The current maximum number of visitors per year is 1100 at the two major “hardened” sites (IUCN Consultation, 2020). All access is by permit. Visitor access is only permitted on the main Auckland Island, Enderby Island and the main Campbell Island. Guidelines are in place to manage the number of visitors permitted to access approved sites at each of these islands, in order to manage impacts on the significant natural values. There is also a limit of no more than one cruise ship in a bay or harbour at any one time, to ensure that those on board the cruise ship can experience the isolation of the site and to limit impacts for visitor boats (Department of Conservation, 2016). The CMS provides additional prescriptions for managing visitors to the islands and notes that a specific visitor management plan will be prepared and reviewed every three years (Department of Conservation, 2016; IUCN Consultation, 2017). It is important that this more detailed visitor management planning is undertaken, an issue highlighted by research into tourism impacts on the Yellow-eyed Penguins found on Enderby Island (French et al., 2018).
There are a variety of monitoring programmes set up on the island by researchers and management staff. These include long running (20+ years) programmes on albatross and sea lions as well as sporadic monitoring of a range of species. A visitor impact monitoring programme (vegetation and soils) at tourist sites was established in 2016 but was not been undertaken between 2018-2020 (Department of Conservation, 2016; IUCN Consultation, 2020). A disease outbreak within a vulnerable population, such as the New Zealand sea lion, is of particular concern; and although such outbreaks occur naturally, human contact is an additional risk factor (Robertson and Chilvers, 2011). Consequently, Department of Conservation has introduced measures to minimise biosecurity risks. For example, a quarantine store is maintained on the mainland, where all researchers’ and managers’ gear is inspected for potential pest species and cleaned; and all vessels undergo quarantine inspections and cleaning before going to the islands (Department of Conservation, 2016).
Research on the islands is managed through a permit system. To date, there have been tight controls on the type and impact of research permitted. There is limited up-to-date information on the proposed new research station in Smith Harbour, Auckland Islands and whether this has proceeded. Several of the species that contribute to the Outstanding Universal Value of the site are part of the research programme that is administered by the Department of Conservation Conservation Services Programme. Other external research is reported on yellow-eyed penguins, Antipodean albatross, Southern Right Whales, New Zealand Sea Lions, Snares Island penguin, Campbell Island rockhopper, the Antipodes Island penguin population and other species of seabirds (IUCN Consultation, 2017).
Assessment of the effectiveness of protection and management in addressing threats outside the site
Mostly Effective
The primary long-term threats come from outside the World Heritage site and are invasive species introductions and climate change, the latter being beyond the control of the management agency. Impressive efforts have taken place to eradicate invasive mammal species from many parts of the site. However, these species persist on some islands. The Department of Conservation has a commendable goal to eradicate all introduced mammal species from the islands by 2025. Controls on the by-catch of relevant species, especially albatross, are generally improving when within the control of the New Zealand Government but this issue is ongoing in international waters.
Assessment of the current state and trend of World Heritage values
Stable
Additional information
Wilderness and iconic features,
Sacred natural sites or landscapes,
Cultural identity and sense of belonging
The islands hold deep spiritual value for the Ngāi Tahu people as the traditional owners of the area within which the World Heritage site is located.
Due to their harsh climate, rugged nature and isolation, the New Zealand Sub-Antarctic represent true wilderness to many people. Yet with appropriate planning and permission, the public can experience these unique islands.
Due to their harsh climate, rugged nature and isolation, the New Zealand Sub-Antarctic represent true wilderness to many people. Yet with appropriate planning and permission, the public can experience these unique islands.
Outdoor recreation and tourism
Tightly controlled tourism provides important advocacy for the islands and for wilderness areas in general. Impacts from tourism are minimized through limiting the numbers of visitors and the locations they can visit.
Importance for research
The site has critically contributed to the understanding of numerous endemic marine species as well as island ecology and specific endemic and native terrestrial species. Studies on the geology of the island groups are increasingly adding to our knowledge of island formation but further work is also required (Rainsley et al., 2019; Scott and Turnbull, 2019) and research on the range of species that occur in the site is ongoing.
The main benefits of New Zealand’s Sub-Antarctic Islands are their nature conservation value, historical and wilderness values and significant knowledge and research values for the numerous endemic fauna and flora species and to some extent the nature based tourism and related benefits. The islands hold deep spiritual value for the Ngāi Tahu people as the traditional owners of the area within which the World Heritage site is located. There may be unexploited synergies between some of these benefits, such as between traditional natural resource use and nature conservation on the one hand and tourism on the other hand.
| № | Organization | Brief description of Active Projects | Website |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Department of Conservation | 5-year timeframe: actions to prepare the proposed Visitor Management Plan; monitor impact of pest plants | |
| 2 | Department of Conservation | 10-year timeframe: actions to improve knowledge of archaeological sites on Antipodes Islands; eradication of introduced mammals; ongoing review of management impact etc |
References
| № | References |
|---|---|
| 1 |
Broome, K., Brown, D., Brown, K., Murphy, E., Birmingham, C., Golding, C., Corson, P. and Cox, A. (2019). House mice on islands: management and lessons from New Zealand. Island invasives: scaling up to meet the challenge, (62), p.100.
|
| 2 |
Chilvers, B.L. (2008). New Zealand sea lions (Phocarctos hookeri) and squid trawl fisheries: bycatch problems and management options. Endangered Species Research, 5, pp.193–204.
|
| 3 |
Davies, K., Murchie, A.A., Kerr, V. and Lundquist, C. (2018). The evolution of marine protected area planning in Aotearoa New Zealand: Reflections on participation and process. Marine Policy, 93, pp.113-127.
|
| 4 |
Department of Conservation. (2011). Subantarctic Tourism Policy – Department of Conservation Invercargill, PO Box 743, Invercargill 9840, New Zealand.
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| 5 |
Department of Conservation. (2012). Proposed regional coastal plan – Kermadec and Subantarctic Islands. [online] Available at: https://www.doc.govt.nz/globalassets/documents/getting-invo… [Accessed on 7 March 2019].
|
| 6 |
Department of Conservation. (2014). New subantarctic research station proposed. Media Release dated 05 March 2014. [online] Available at: http://www.doc.govt.nz/news/media-releases/2014/new-subanta…. [Accessed: 7 June 2017].
|
| 7 |
Department of Conservation. (2016). Conservation management strategy – Southland Murihiku 2016-2026, Volume 1. [online] Wellington: New Zealand Department of Conservation. Available at: http://www.doc.govt.nz/about-us/our-policies-and-plans/stat…. [Accessed: 7 June 2017].
|
| 8 |
Department of Conservation. (2017a). Predator Free 2050. [online] Available at: http://www.doc.govt.nz/predator-free-2050. [Accessed: 7 June 2017].
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| 9 |
Department of Conservation. (2017b). Subantarctic Islands. [online] Available at: http://www.doc.govt.nz/parks-and-recreation/places-to-go/so… [Accessed: 7 June 2017].
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| 10 |
Department of Conservation. (2017c). Regional Coastal Plan: Kermadecs and the Subantarctics. Available at: https://www.doc.govt.nz/globalassets/documents/getting-invo… (Accessed 16 May 2019).
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| 11 |
Francis, R.I.C.C., Elliott, G. & Walker, K. (2015). Fisheries risk to the viability of Gibson’s wandering albatross Diomedea gibsoni. New Zealand Aquatic Environment and Biodiversity Report No. 152. [online] Wellington: Ministry for Primary Industries. Available at: https://fs.fish.govt.nz/Doc/23800/AEBR%20_152_2507_PRO2006-… [Accessed on 9 July 2019].
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| 12 |
French, R.K., Muller, C.G., Chilvers, B.L. and Battley, P.F. (2018). Behavioural consequences of human disturbance on subantarctic Yellow-eyed Penguins Megadyptes antipodes. Bird Conservation International, pp.1-14.
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| 13 |
Hamilton, S. and Barry Baker, G. (2019). Population growth of an endangered pinniped—the New Zealand sea lion (Phocarctos hookeri)—is limited more by high pup mortality than fisheries bycatch. ICES Journal of Marine Science.
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| 14 |
Heritage Expeditions. (2017). Subantarctic Islands Voyages. [online] Available at: http://www.heritage-expeditions.com/cruises-expeditions-in-…. (Accessed: 7 June 2017).
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| 15 |
Hiscock, J.A. and Chilvers, B.L. (2014). Declining eastern rockhopper (Eudyptes filholi) and erect-crested (E. sclateri) penguins on the Antipodes Islands, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Ecology, 38, pp.124–131.
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| 16 |
Hiscock, J.A., McClelland, P. and Chilvers, B.L. (2014). First complete post-breeding survey of the Bounty Island Shag (Leucocarbo ranfurlyi). Notornis, 61, pp.60–62.
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| 17 |
Horn, S., Greene, T. and Elliott, G. (2019). Eradication of mice from Antipodes Island, New Zealand. Island invasives: scaling up to meet the challenge, (62), p.131.
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| 18 |
IUCN Consultation (2020). IUCN Confidential Consultation: New Zealand Sub-Antarctic Islands, New Zealand.
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| 19 |
IUCN Consultation. (2017). IUCN World Heritage Confidential Consultation: New Zealand Sub-Antarctic Islands, New Zealand.
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| 20 |
IUCN. (1998). World Heritage Nomination – IUCN Technical Evaluation, New Zealand Sub-antarctic Islands (New Zealand). [online] Gland, Switzerland: Available at: https://whc.unesco.org/document/154503 [Accessed on 9 July 2019].
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| 21 |
Leihy, R.I., Duffy, G.A., Nortje, E. and Chown, S.L. (2018). High resolution temperature data for ecological research and management on the Southern Ocean Islands. Scientific data, 5, p.180177.
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| 22 |
Lenting, B., Gartrella, B., Kokosinskaa, A., Duignanb, P.J., Michaela, S., Huntera, S. and Roea, W.D. (2019). Causes of adult mortality in two populations of New Zealand sea lions (Phocarctos hookeri). Veterinary and Animal Science, 7 (2019). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vas.2019.100057
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| 23 |
McClelland, P.J. (2011). Campbell Island – pushing the boundaries of rat eradications. In: Veitch, C. R., Clout, M. N. and Towns, D. R. (eds.). 2011. Island invasives: eradication and management. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. pp. 204-207 . [online] Available at: http://www.issg.org/pdf/publications/Island_Invasives/pdfHQ…
([Accessed: 7 March 2019]. |
| 24 |
Million Dollar Mouse Initiative. (2017). Eradicating mice from the Antipodes Islands. [online] Available at: http://milliondollarmouse.org.nz/. [Accessed: 7 June 2017].
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| 25 |
Miskelly, C.M. and Fraser, J.R. (2006). Campbell Island snipe (Coenocorypha undescribed sp.) recolonize subantarctic Campbell Island following rat eradication. Notornis, 53, pp.353–359.
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| 26 |
New Zealand Government. (2013). Subantarctic Islands Marine Protected Areas: Subantarctic Islands Marine Reserves Bill and accompanying Fisheries Act measures: Regulatory Impact Statement. Wellington. [online] Available at: http://www.doc.govt.nz/documents/about-doc/role/legislation… [Accessed: 7 March 2019].
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| 27 |
Palmer, J.G., Turney, C.S.M., Fogwill, C., Fenwick, P., Thomas, Z., Lipson, M., Jones, R.T., Beaven, B., Richardson, S.J. and Wilmshurst, J.M. (2018). Growth response of an invasive alien species to climate variations on subantarctic Campbell Island. New Zealand Journal of Ecology, 42(1), pp.31-39.
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| 28 |
RadioNZ. (2017). Sub-antarctic islands offer glimpse of pest-free NZ. [online] Available at: http://www.radionz.co.nz/news/national/325293/sub-antarctic…. (Accessed: 7 June 2017).
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