New Zealand Sub-Antarctic Islands
Country
New Zealand
Inscribed in
1998
Criteria
(ix)
(x)
The conservation outlook for this site has been assessed as "good" in the latest assessment cycle. Explore the Conservation Outlook Assessment for the site below. You have the option to access the summary, or the detailed assessment.
The New Zealand Sub-Antarctic Islands consist of five island groups (the Snares, Bounty Islands, Antipodes Islands, Auckland Islands and Campbell Island) in the Southern Ocean south-east of New Zealand. The islands, lying between the Antarctic and Subtropical Convergences and the seas, have a high level of productivity, biodiversity, wildlife population densities and endemism among birds, plants and invertebrates. They are particularly notable for the large number and diversity of pelagic seabirds and penguins that nest there. There are 126 bird species in total, including 40 seabirds of which five breed nowhere else in the world. © UNESCO
Summary
2025 Conservation Outlook
Finalised on
11 Oct 2025
Good
Current state and trend of VALUES
Low Concern
Overall THREATS
Overall PROTECTION and MANAGEMENT
Full assessment
Description of values
Exceptional diversity and abundance of birds
Criterion
(x)
The New Zealand Sub-Antarctic Islands are particularly notable for the abundance and diversity of pelagic seabirds and penguins that utilise the islands for breeding, courtship and moulting. The property supports the most diverse community of breeding seabirds in the Southern Ocean. There are 126 species of birds, including 40 seabirds, eight of which breed nowhere else in the world. The islands support major populations of 10 of the world’s 22 species of albatrosses (four of which are endemic to the region), three species of cormorants (one of which, the Bounty Island shag, is the world’s rarest cormorant) and four species of penguin. Almost 2 million sooty shearwaters nest on Snares Island alone. Land birds also display a surprising diversity, considering the limited land area available, with a large number of threatened endemics including snipe, parakeets and teal, which are one of the world’s rarest ducks (World Heritage Committee, 2012).
Distinctive examples of evolutionary processes which result in high levels of endemism
Criterion
(ix)
Isolation, climatic factors and seven degrees of latitudinal spread have combined to significantly influence the biota of the New Zealand Sub-Antarctic Islands. Consequently they provide scientific insights into the evolutionary processes affecting widely-spread oceanic islands, varying from relatively mature endemic forms to relatively immature taxa, constituting a fascinating laboratory for the study of genetic variation, speciation and adaptation, particularly in the Insulantarctic biogeographic province. Evolutionary processes, such as the loss of flight in birds and invertebrates, offer unique opportunities for research into island dynamics and ecology (World Heritage Committee, 2012).
Preponderance of ‘megaherbs’ within the plant biodiversity
Criterion
(ix)
Another outstanding feature is the preponderance of ‘megaherbs’ within the plant biodiversity. These large herbs, often with brightly coloured flowers, are considered to display unique evolutionary adaptation to the distinctive Sub-Antarctic climate – with its cloud cover (and lack of solar radiation), lack of frosts, strong winds and high nutrient levels derived from seabird transference of nutrients (World Heritage Committee, 2012).
Rich flora
Criterion
(x)
Together with neighbouring Macquarie Island, the New Zealand Sub-Antarctic Islands represent a Centre of Plant Diversity and have the richest flora of all the Sub-Antarctic Islands with 35 endemic taxa. The ‘megaherbs’ are unique to the property and Macquarie Island. The Snares Group and two of the Auckland Islands are of particular biodiversity conservation significance due to the absence of any human and exotic species modification (World Heritage Committee, 2012).
Outstanding array of endemic and threatened species among the marine fauna
Criterion
(x)
The New Zealand Sub-Antarctic Islands, and the ocean that surrounds and links them, support an extraordinary and outstanding array of endemic and threatened species among the marine fauna. As a group they are distinct from all other island groups, having breeding sites of the world’s rarest sea lion (the New Zealand sea lion) and a significant breeding population of the southern right whale (World Heritage Committee, 2012).
Assessment information
The major current threats to the World Heritage site are from outside and include commercial fishing by-catch and invasive species introductions. Current management policies manage internal threats well but any relaxation of those policies, such as biosecurity and access controls, will raise the threat level in the terrestrial component of the site, and increase the potential impact on the values of the site, especially in the face of increased stressors from climate change. Strengthened biosecurity measures and proposals to manage tourism impacts are spelled out in the Conservation Management Strategy. Active monitoring and management of invasive species continues within the site. The aspiration to eradicate all invasive mammal species from the islands by 2050 is commendable and should be strongly encouraged with ongoing efforts towards this objective. By-catch mitigation to reduce the impact of adjacent and international commercial fishing activities on marine mammals and seabirds is reliant on the monitoring of taxa at risk in both their marine and terrestrial environments through tracking, diet, and population studies. In the marine environment, DOC is progressing a change to the Coastal Plan that will enhance the rules regulating the risk of introducing marine invasive species in vessel hull and niche are biofouling, to further minimise those risks. Continued monitoring and adaptive management intervention will be needed to safeguard the site from marine based pollution including threats such as oil spills and marine litter, which may come from outside the site despite the strong controls being implemented within the site.
Fishing, Harvesting & Controlling Aquatic Species
(Commercial fishing)
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
Outside site
While resource exploitation is tightly restricted over most of the site through legislative controls, there are still some areas open to commercial fishing which poses risks to native species (marine mammals and seabirds) through competition for food species and bycatch. The endangered New Zealand sealion (Phocarctos hookeri) is one species that is affected through by-catch and management actions are required to alleviate the impacts on the population (Hamilton and Baker, 2019). However, in 2024 the New Zealand Government made the decision to stop any limit on NZ sealion bycatch related to the Auckland Island squid fishery. In the 2025 summer season, the numbers of NZ sealion had reduced to less than 5000 adults and estimated to decline a further 30-50% over the next 30 years. Th NZ sealion threat classification has been downgraded to nationally endangered. The Minister of Fisheries has said he is prepared to reconsider his 2024 decision (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
Impacts of bycatch are also true for fishing well outside the site as many of the species forage widely including within the waters of other nations (New Zealand Government, 2013). At the time of inscription, only one island group had a marine reserve (Auckland Islands). Additional marine reserves have been established to improve conservation. Four marine reserves now exist within the World Heritage site: Antipodes Island, Auckland Islands, Bounty Islands and Campbell Island. These better protect marine values and the connectivity between marine and terrestrial systems (Department of Conservation, 2017b). More information is required about the year-round marine distribution and feeding ecology of marine mammals and seabirds to ensure that marine protection measures are effective at reducing direct and indirect impacts of contemporaneous commercial activities.
Impacts of bycatch are also true for fishing well outside the site as many of the species forage widely including within the waters of other nations (New Zealand Government, 2013). At the time of inscription, only one island group had a marine reserve (Auckland Islands). Additional marine reserves have been established to improve conservation. Four marine reserves now exist within the World Heritage site: Antipodes Island, Auckland Islands, Bounty Islands and Campbell Island. These better protect marine values and the connectivity between marine and terrestrial systems (Department of Conservation, 2017b). More information is required about the year-round marine distribution and feeding ecology of marine mammals and seabirds to ensure that marine protection measures are effective at reducing direct and indirect impacts of contemporaneous commercial activities.
Recreational Activities
(Increasing impact from tourism)
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
In general, the terrestrial component of the site consists of soft peat soils which are very vulnerable to erosion if the covering vegetation is damaged. To date, this has been managed by restricting the locations tourists can visit and hardening (installing boardwalks) at two locations where higher numbers of tourists are permitted. Commercially run expeditions have been running to the islands since the 1970s/80s (State Party of New Zealand, 1997) and continue to be conducted to various places in the World Heritage site. Previously, concerns were raised about proposed plans to substantially increase both visitor sites and numbers, due to the biosecurity risks and potential damage to fragile ecosystems (IUCN Consultation, 2017). For example, French et al. (2019) found levels of tourism are likely to be impacting the population of yellow-eyed penguin (Megadyptes antipodes) on Enderby Island in the Auckland Island Group. The Conservation Management Strategy (CMS) for the site commits to the continued practice of a Department of Conservation official accompanying every voyage where people land on the islands (Department of Conservation, 2011; Department of Conservation, 2016). Tourism levels during the period of the COVID-19 pandemic were negligible. Since travel restrictions have been lifted as the COVID-19 pandemic eased, tourism demand has increased. However, land access continues to be managed in accordance with the limits and conditions of the CMS. In accordance with the CMS, the Department of Conservation is currently consulting to develop a visitor monitoring programme, together with a visitor management plan, for the careful assessment of future numbers of visitors and visitor sites. No changes to the sites and numbers of visitors will be considered until that work is completed (IUCN consultation, 2024).
Invasive / Other Problematic Species, Genes & Pathogens, Invasive Non-Native/ Alien Species
(Invasive alien species)
Invasive/problematic species
Undaria pinnatifida
Mus musculus
Felis catus
Sus scrofa
Other invasive species names
Olearia lyallii
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
Following the eradication of goats, cattle, sheep, rats and rabbits on these islands, the majority of islands are free of introduced mammals, with the exception of the main Auckland Island (pigs, cats, and mice) (Department of Conservation, 2016; McClelland, 2011; Miskelly and Fraser, 2006). A mice eradication programme was carried out on the Antipodes Island in the winter of 2016 (Million Dollar Mouse Initiative, 2017) and has since been declared as a success (Broome et al., 2019; Horn, Greene and Elliott, 2019). The eradication of pigs, cats, and mice has been proposed for the main Auckland Island and a feasibility study for this was completed in 2021 (Department of Conservation, 2021). The New Zealand Government has announced an ambitious target to eradicate all rats, stoats, and possums from New Zealand by 2050 in a proposal called Predator Free New Zealand 2050. This programme includes the eradication of all mammalian pests from uninhabited, offshore islands by 2050, with a focus on progressing eradication at sites that are feasible - the Auckland Island is the highest priority (Department of Conservation, 2024a).
Weed species are present on several of the islands. These are not being actively managed unless it is considered that they will endanger the island ecosystems. The sub-antarctic tree daisy (Olearia lyallii) in the Auckland Islands has been determined to have arrived by humans in the 19th century and is therefore considered an alien species for these islands. It is being monitored to determine its potential impact on the island ecosystems (Wilmshurst, McGlone and Turney, 2015). Eradication of this species is currently being scoped (IUCN consultation, 2024).
A comprehensive biosecurity programme is managed by the Department of Conservation for all expeditions landing on the islands to minimise the risk of introduced species. Extremely rigorous biosecurity practices apply to any visitors making landfall (RadioNZ, 2017).
There have been two observations from tourists about possible incursions that have resulted in a response. To date these incursion reports have proved highly unlikely following investigation. A comprehensive review of Biosecurity plans and responses is in progress. The establishment of on-island surveillance and detection networks is planned with the preparation of response kits for each island group underway (IUCN consultation, 2024).
In the marine environment, the Coastal Plan contains rules to reduce the risk of introducing marine invasive species in vessel hull and niche area biofouling. DOC is also progressing a change to the Coastal Plan that will enhance these rules to further minimise the risk. This is a precautionary approach to managing this risk due to the difficulties in monitoring the marine environment in such a remote and challenging environment. DOC is one of only 3 places in the world to regulate vessel hull biofouling of vessels intending to visit Marine Protected Areas, including hull inspections (GloFouling Partnerships Project Coordination Unit, 2024). Monitoring of marine biosecurity threats has not yet begun for the sub-Antarctic Islands. Undaria is known to be spreading at the Snares Island. Regular surveillance by the New Zealand Ministry for Primary Industries for marine pests continues at the closest mainland port of Bluff Harbour (IUCN consultation, 2024).
Weed species are present on several of the islands. These are not being actively managed unless it is considered that they will endanger the island ecosystems. The sub-antarctic tree daisy (Olearia lyallii) in the Auckland Islands has been determined to have arrived by humans in the 19th century and is therefore considered an alien species for these islands. It is being monitored to determine its potential impact on the island ecosystems (Wilmshurst, McGlone and Turney, 2015). Eradication of this species is currently being scoped (IUCN consultation, 2024).
A comprehensive biosecurity programme is managed by the Department of Conservation for all expeditions landing on the islands to minimise the risk of introduced species. Extremely rigorous biosecurity practices apply to any visitors making landfall (RadioNZ, 2017).
There have been two observations from tourists about possible incursions that have resulted in a response. To date these incursion reports have proved highly unlikely following investigation. A comprehensive review of Biosecurity plans and responses is in progress. The establishment of on-island surveillance and detection networks is planned with the preparation of response kits for each island group underway (IUCN consultation, 2024).
In the marine environment, the Coastal Plan contains rules to reduce the risk of introducing marine invasive species in vessel hull and niche area biofouling. DOC is also progressing a change to the Coastal Plan that will enhance these rules to further minimise the risk. This is a precautionary approach to managing this risk due to the difficulties in monitoring the marine environment in such a remote and challenging environment. DOC is one of only 3 places in the world to regulate vessel hull biofouling of vessels intending to visit Marine Protected Areas, including hull inspections (GloFouling Partnerships Project Coordination Unit, 2024). Monitoring of marine biosecurity threats has not yet begun for the sub-Antarctic Islands. Undaria is known to be spreading at the Snares Island. Regular surveillance by the New Zealand Ministry for Primary Industries for marine pests continues at the closest mainland port of Bluff Harbour (IUCN consultation, 2024).
Water-borne & other effluent Pollution
(Ground water pollution and pollution of marine waters)
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Outside site
Increased waste management issues, especially sewage and waste water, have become a greater issue with increased tourist vessels, and especially the researchers and conservation officers who stay on the islands. Tourists are not permitted to stay overnight and this restriction is maintained in the 2016 Southland Murihiku Conservation Management Strategy (the CMS). The CMS prohibits the disposal of non-biodegradable waste on the islands and only permits the disposal of biodegradable waste in such a way as to avoid any adverse effects (Department of Conservation, 2016). The Regional Coastal Plan: Kermadec and Subantarctic Islands 2017 (the Coastal Plan) includes strict regulations in regard to access to the marine environment within 1,000 m of shore (Department of Conservation, 2017c).
The purpose of the Coastal Plan is to promote the sustainable management of the natural and physical resources of the coastal marine area including the World Heritage site and surrounding territorial waters (IUCN Consultation, 2017; Department of Conservation, 2017c). The Coastal Plan restricts discharges of contaminants from land and vessels (other than vessel discharges allowed by MARPOL). The risk of oil spills is a key issue the coastal plan seeks to minimise (Department of Conservation, 2017c). The Coastal Plan prohibits the use of heavy fuel oil as a fuel or carriage of it as a cargo within the territorial seas of the islands (using the same definition of HFO as in MARPOL for Antarctic waters south of 60 degrees) in recognition that such heavy grade fuels would have the most severe impact and persistence in the environment. However, now that New Zealand has become a signatory to MARPOL Annex VI the risk of a vessel running on heavy fuel oil is significantly reduced (IUCN consultation, 2024). New Zealand’s marine reserve legislation also restricts discharges to the coastal waters of the site.
The 1957 Campbell Island meteorological station is now 68 years old and deteriorating. A government decision will be needed on its removal in the near future.
The purpose of the Coastal Plan is to promote the sustainable management of the natural and physical resources of the coastal marine area including the World Heritage site and surrounding territorial waters (IUCN Consultation, 2017; Department of Conservation, 2017c). The Coastal Plan restricts discharges of contaminants from land and vessels (other than vessel discharges allowed by MARPOL). The risk of oil spills is a key issue the coastal plan seeks to minimise (Department of Conservation, 2017c). The Coastal Plan prohibits the use of heavy fuel oil as a fuel or carriage of it as a cargo within the territorial seas of the islands (using the same definition of HFO as in MARPOL for Antarctic waters south of 60 degrees) in recognition that such heavy grade fuels would have the most severe impact and persistence in the environment. However, now that New Zealand has become a signatory to MARPOL Annex VI the risk of a vessel running on heavy fuel oil is significantly reduced (IUCN consultation, 2024). New Zealand’s marine reserve legislation also restricts discharges to the coastal waters of the site.
The 1957 Campbell Island meteorological station is now 68 years old and deteriorating. A government decision will be needed on its removal in the near future.
Changes in Physical & Chemical Regimes, Changes in Temperature Regimes, Changes in Precipitation & Hydrological Regime
(Climate change)
Inside site
, Throughout(>50%)
Outside site
Global climate changes are likely to not only have an impact on temperatures but also on oceanic systems by impacting currents, ocean acidity levels, nutrient availability and organism distribution. As the ecosystem of the site relies heavily on oceanic nutrients any change is likely to negatively impact both individual species and the overall ecosystem. Increased rainfall induced by climate change, may also increase impact on the flora of the site and increase the risk of erosion. It is recognized that as global temperatures increase, new habitats, both terrestrial and marine, could potentially become more suitable for introduced species, upsetting any current balance between native and introduced species and allowing the establishment of new species further modifying these fragile ecosystems.
The potential for increased impacts from invasive alien species in the future due to climate change is a key reason for maintaining the highest bio-security possible to avoid new species, which are not currently deemed a major threat, from establishing. How species already present on the island will be affected by changing climate will require further research with some invasive plants benefiting from the changes through faster growth and others potentially being impacted through reduced fruiting or reproduction (Palmer et al., 2018). It is difficult to establish the impacts from climate change on the site but they are likely to increase. Research on the islands to test options for high resolution temperature data have been undertaken and will assist with detecting any changes in temperature (Leihy et al., 2018).
The potential for increased impacts from invasive alien species in the future due to climate change is a key reason for maintaining the highest bio-security possible to avoid new species, which are not currently deemed a major threat, from establishing. How species already present on the island will be affected by changing climate will require further research with some invasive plants benefiting from the changes through faster growth and others potentially being impacted through reduced fruiting or reproduction (Palmer et al., 2018). It is difficult to establish the impacts from climate change on the site but they are likely to increase. Research on the islands to test options for high resolution temperature data have been undertaken and will assist with detecting any changes in temperature (Leihy et al., 2018).
Recorded to have reached Antarctica, the impact of the arrival of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) on the species found at the site are hard to anticipate but likely to be significant.
Pathogens
(Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI))
Inside site
, Widespread(15-50%)
Estimates vary, but at the latest count, worldwide there have been 485 species from over 25 avian orders affected by Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) and 37 mammal species infected since 2021. As of early 2025 HPAI has not been recorded in New Zealand’s Subantarctic Islands. HPAI has been recorded to have reached Antarctica (SCAR, 2025; Aguado et al., 2024). The impact of the arrival of HPAI on the species found at the site are hard to anticipate but likely to be significant.
Other Human Disturbances
(Possible relaxing of restrictions on helicopter access)
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
Concerns have previously been raised about possible relaxing of restrictions on helicopter access to the islands, most notably to the Auckland Islands. The CMS outlines tight policies for aircraft use and management. All aircraft landings require an entry permit and permanent restricted airspace areas have been prescribed pursuant to Civil Aviation Rules, which mean that all overflights (up to 3,500 feet AMSL) over the islands first require the permission of Department of Conservation (Department of Conservation, 2016). The New Zealand Government does not permit tourist helicopter access to the Subantarctic Islands so there is currently no threat.
Involvement of stakeholders and rightsholders, including indigenous peoples and local communities, in decision-making processes
Relationships with local people (including stakeholder relationships, participatory management, rights, and access to benefits and equity) are actively maintained. A strong emphasis is placed on managing all protected areas in New Zealand in close cooperation with and respecting the rights of traditional owners (Davies et al., 2018). Whilst there are no resident human populations on the islands these efforts are also supported for the World Heritage site. Ngāi Tahu are the ‘tangata whenua’ with ‘rangatiratanga’ or tribal authority over the area covered by the Conservation Management Strategy. They are Department of Conservation’s primary partner under the Treaty of Waitangi for the subantarctic islands. Ngāi Tahu have indicated interest in initiating or leading conservation programmes in the site (known as “Subantarctic Ngā Moutere O Murihiku Ki Tonga Place”) (Department of Conservation, 2016) and are increasingly being involved in protected area planning (Davies et al., 2018).
Legal framework
The terrestrial areas have the highest legal protection in New Zealand as National Nature Reserves under The Reserves Act 1977. The interpretation of the legal protection of the land area has been assisted through the implementation of the Conservation Management Strategy (CMS).
The majority of the coastal marine area also has the highest marine protection status in NZ statue with just over 59% of the combined territorial seas of the islands protected as marine reserves (Department of Conservation, 2014). The marine area is also legally protected through the Coastal Plan (Department of Conservation, 2017c). This is a mandatory regional plan under the Resource Management Act 1991.
The majority of the coastal marine area also has the highest marine protection status in NZ statue with just over 59% of the combined territorial seas of the islands protected as marine reserves (Department of Conservation, 2014). The marine area is also legally protected through the Coastal Plan (Department of Conservation, 2017c). This is a mandatory regional plan under the Resource Management Act 1991.
Governance arrangements
The islands are managed by the New Zealand Department of Conservation as National Nature Reserves, and together are recognised as the World Heritage Site. The Department of Conservation (DOC), is the government agency responsible for the conservation of natural and historic heritage on behalf of the Government and people of New Zealand, as well as providing for recreation on conservation lands. There is a strong relationship with Indigenous peoples and stakeholders, which supports the governance of the site. The DOC Murihiku District Office has day-to-day responsibility for management, with oversight provided by a regional office alongside regulatory policy and scientific advice from the DOC Head Office.
Integration into local, regional and national planning systems (including sea/landscape connectivity)
The World Heritage site is well integrated into the national planning system as part of the CMS. Management of the marine area is integrated through the development and implementation of the Coastal Plan, which gives effect to the New Zealand Coastal Policy Statement 2010. The Coastal Plan provides rules that control access, discharges, structures, disturbance, deposition and reclamation. The rules regulating access (to the marine waters) and discharges in particular work to reduce the risk of contaminant spill, including oil spills (Department of Conservation, 2017c).
Boundaries
The boundaries of the site include all the terrestrial area of the islands and the coastal marine waters until the outer limit of territorial waters at 12 nm. There is one marine mammal sanctuary around the Auckland Islands (for the full territorial sea), and four marine reserves around (all or parts of) the Antipodes Island Group (full territorial sea), the Auckland Islands (full territorial sea), the Bounty Islands (58% of territorial sea) and Campbell Island (39% of territorial sea) (Department of Conservation, 2016).
Overlapping international designations
No overlapping designations
Implementation of World Heritage Committee decisions and recommendations
Rats have been removed from the Campbell Islands and mice removed from the Antipodes Islands. Work is progressing to assess the feasibility of the removal of mice, pigs and cats from the main Auckland Island (IUCN Consultation, 2024).
At the time of inscription, the World Heritage Committee expressed its concern “over the integrity of the marine area and the conservation of the marine resources” (IUCN, 1998; World Heritage Committee, 1998). At that time there was only one marine reserve in the site, for the territorial sea around the Auckland Islands. Since inscription there has been increased protection of the marine habitat within the site with additional no-take marine reserves around the Antipodes (full territorial sea), Bounty (58% territorial sea) and Campbell (39% territorial sea) Islands being protected. The Moutere Ihupuku / Campbell Island Marine Reserve was reviewed in 2020, with the outcome that the Marine Reserve will not be extended to the remaining 61 percent of the island group’s territorial sea. The Snares does not have an adjoining marine reserve in place (IUCN Consultation, 2024).
The development and implementation of the Coastal Plan has also improved marine protection by reducing the risk of marine biosecurity breach and navigation safety incident that could result in contaminant spill and biosecurity breach. The Coastal Plan applies to the coastal marine area of all the island groups of the site. In addition DOC has recently (2022) contracted maritime expertise to manage navigation safety at the Islands (IUCN Consultation, 2024).
At the time of inscription, the World Heritage Committee expressed its concern “over the integrity of the marine area and the conservation of the marine resources” (IUCN, 1998; World Heritage Committee, 1998). At that time there was only one marine reserve in the site, for the territorial sea around the Auckland Islands. Since inscription there has been increased protection of the marine habitat within the site with additional no-take marine reserves around the Antipodes (full territorial sea), Bounty (58% territorial sea) and Campbell (39% territorial sea) Islands being protected. The Moutere Ihupuku / Campbell Island Marine Reserve was reviewed in 2020, with the outcome that the Marine Reserve will not be extended to the remaining 61 percent of the island group’s territorial sea. The Snares does not have an adjoining marine reserve in place (IUCN Consultation, 2024).
The development and implementation of the Coastal Plan has also improved marine protection by reducing the risk of marine biosecurity breach and navigation safety incident that could result in contaminant spill and biosecurity breach. The Coastal Plan applies to the coastal marine area of all the island groups of the site. In addition DOC has recently (2022) contracted maritime expertise to manage navigation safety at the Islands (IUCN Consultation, 2024).
Climate action
Climate impacts are likely to not only affect temperatures, frequency and intensity of weather events and habitat distribution, but are also likely to impact on oceanic systems by affecting currents, ocean acidity levels, nutrient availability and organism distribution. All of these changes are likely to impact on the values of the site. Predictions for impacts include potentially drier conditions which may also increase the threat from fires and highlights the need for strict management of visitor activities. Alternatively increased frequency and intensity of weather events could increase erosion and impact the flora of the site.
Given the majority of climate change impacts will originate from outside the site there is limited management that can be done within the site at this time, beyond establishing baselines and monitoring for any impacts. The CMS notes the potential for climate change impacts for the site and the importance of ongoing monitoring to detect any changes in the values (IUCN consultation, 2024). The potential for increased impacts from invasive species in the future due to climate change is a key reason for maintaining the highest bio-security possible to avoid new species, which are not currently deemed a major threat, from establishing.
Given the majority of climate change impacts will originate from outside the site there is limited management that can be done within the site at this time, beyond establishing baselines and monitoring for any impacts. The CMS notes the potential for climate change impacts for the site and the importance of ongoing monitoring to detect any changes in the values (IUCN consultation, 2024). The potential for increased impacts from invasive species in the future due to climate change is a key reason for maintaining the highest bio-security possible to avoid new species, which are not currently deemed a major threat, from establishing.
Management plan and overall management system
100% of the World Heritage site, including all the land area, is under the management of the Department of Conservation (Department of Conservation, 2012; Department of Conservation, 2017c). This results in an integrated management system for all the islands, which works well. The site has two current management plans. The 2016 Southland Murihiku Conservation Management Strategy (the CMS) outlines the goals and outcomes specific to the terrestrial area of the site including the preparation, implementation and regular review of the visitor management plan (Department of Conservation, 2016). The Regional Coastal Plan: Kermadec and Subantarctic Islands (the Coastal Plan) is specific to the site’s coastal marine waters (Department of Conservation, 2017c). This Coastal Plan’s jurisdiction is from the mean high water springs (MHWS) to the outer limits of the territorial sea. The CMS and the Coastal Plan both recognise the importance of the land-sea interface (for species and ecosystems) and the need for complementary management of risk, including biosecurity and contaminant spills.
Law enforcement
Landing on the terrestrial area of the site is strictly controlled through access approval systems which apply to all visitors, including DOC staff involved in conservation management work and research. All cruise ship tourism land access is by guided tour. These require two types of authorisation, a concession for the overall commercial tourism activity and then an entry permit for everyone who will land ashore. All cruise ships carry a government observer aboard. This role is responsible for ensuring the tourism operator complies with their conditions of these two approvals (IUCN consultation, 2024).
DOC also manages compliance with the rules of both the marine reserves and Coastal Plan. That plan has many permitted rules (subject to complying with conditions), though access for some vessels and some activities do require advance approval by ‘resource consent’. In addition to the government observer monitoring for any non-compliant behaviours in the marine area, DOC also monitors compliance in the territorial waters using ship based Automatic Identification System (AIS) (IUCN consultation, 2024).
DOC also manages compliance with the rules of both the marine reserves and Coastal Plan. That plan has many permitted rules (subject to complying with conditions), though access for some vessels and some activities do require advance approval by ‘resource consent’. In addition to the government observer monitoring for any non-compliant behaviours in the marine area, DOC also monitors compliance in the territorial waters using ship based Automatic Identification System (AIS) (IUCN consultation, 2024).
Sustainable finance
Funding for the site is provided by the New Zealand central government and is managed through the Department of Conservation. This is supported by revenue from tourist operations, which are variable (IUCN consultation, 2024). Major projects such as eradications are funded on a one-off basis and usually attract important private donations. Funding is considered adequate for many purposes however added funds need to be secured to enable species research, the maintenance of infrastructure for researchers to stay on the islands and for enhancing biosecurity surveillance (IUCN consultation, 2024).
Staff capacity, training and development
The site is managed from the Department of Conservation’s Invercargill office, who are supported by staff from other teams across the Department as required such as technical (science), legal and planning. Staff training and development is nationally coordinated to meet local needs (IUCN consultation, 2024).
Education and interpretation programmes
All commercial tourist visitors to the islands travel are part of permitted guided tours, where they receive comprehensive in-person education and interpretation from their cruise operator (IUCN consultation, 2024). Any non-commercial recreational visitors to the site require an entry permit and this provides background information about the expected behaviours when on the islands, including biosecurity needs. The requirement for all tourist guided tours to be accompanied by a government observer also provides the opportunity for one-on-one interpretation although the degree to which this is taken up varies between tourist operators (IUCN consultation, 2024).
Tourism and visitation management
At the time of nomination, about 10 ships were reported as visiting the islands each year and a limit of 600 tourists per site per season was imposed (State Party of New Zealand, 1997). Currently about a dozen ships and 1,500 passengers visit the islands per annum (IUCN Consultation, 2025). The CMS continues to provide strict limits on daily and annual visitor numbers to the permitted visitor areas within the World Heritage site (Department of Conservation, 2016). All tourist visitor access is by permit. This access is only permitted on the main Auckland Island, Enderby Island and Campbell Island.
Guidelines are in place to manage the number of visitors permitted to access the approved visitor areas at each of these islands, in order to manage impacts on the outstanding natural values. The current maximum limit on the number of visitors per year is 1,700 at the “hardened” track on Enderby Island (Department of Conservation, 2016). The CMS provides additional prescriptions for managing visitors to the islands and notes that a specific visitor management plan will be prepared and reviewed regularly (Department of Conservation, 2016; IUCN Consultation, 2017). This visitor management plan is currently under development (Department of Conservation, 2024b). It is important that this visitor management plan is completed, e.g. issues highlighted by research into tourism impacts on the yellow-eyed penguin/hoiho found on Enderby Island (French et al., 2019).
For the marine environment, the Coastal Plan contains a number of access restrictions including: requirements for the management of vessel hull and niche area biofouling; access to zones close to shore based on vessel length as a proxy for the many factors that can influence a vessels navigation safety risk profile; prohibiting access by vessels fuelled by heavy fuel oil or carrying it as a cargo; restricting access to any bay or harbour to one cruise ship at any time (Department of Conservation, 2017c). That latter reduces the risk of navigation safety incident while also promoting the remote wilderness experience for tourists.
Guidelines are in place to manage the number of visitors permitted to access the approved visitor areas at each of these islands, in order to manage impacts on the outstanding natural values. The current maximum limit on the number of visitors per year is 1,700 at the “hardened” track on Enderby Island (Department of Conservation, 2016). The CMS provides additional prescriptions for managing visitors to the islands and notes that a specific visitor management plan will be prepared and reviewed regularly (Department of Conservation, 2016; IUCN Consultation, 2017). This visitor management plan is currently under development (Department of Conservation, 2024b). It is important that this visitor management plan is completed, e.g. issues highlighted by research into tourism impacts on the yellow-eyed penguin/hoiho found on Enderby Island (French et al., 2019).
For the marine environment, the Coastal Plan contains a number of access restrictions including: requirements for the management of vessel hull and niche area biofouling; access to zones close to shore based on vessel length as a proxy for the many factors that can influence a vessels navigation safety risk profile; prohibiting access by vessels fuelled by heavy fuel oil or carrying it as a cargo; restricting access to any bay or harbour to one cruise ship at any time (Department of Conservation, 2017c). That latter reduces the risk of navigation safety incident while also promoting the remote wilderness experience for tourists.
Sustainable use
There is little resource exploitation of the site. Land based development is not compatible with the National Nature Reserves status. DOC is seeking eventual removal of old dis-used buildings from the past that are not recognised as cultural or historic heritage (IUCN consultation, 2024).
The purpose of the Coastal Plan is to ensure sustainable management of the coastal marine environment. The objectives and policies of that plan seek to discourage development in the marine area of the site.
Fishing inside the five marine reserves within the boundaries of the World Heritage site is prohibited. This is just 59% of the combined territorial seas of the site. The Snares Islands do not have a marine reserve around them, while currently there is no fishing activity around the Snares Islands, this does not mean fishing could not occur (IUCN Consultation, 2024).
Efforts are also being made to reduce impacts of fishing on marine species that occur in the site but these species are also affected by fishing outside the boundaries (IUCN consultation, 2024).
The purpose of the Coastal Plan is to ensure sustainable management of the coastal marine environment. The objectives and policies of that plan seek to discourage development in the marine area of the site.
Fishing inside the five marine reserves within the boundaries of the World Heritage site is prohibited. This is just 59% of the combined territorial seas of the site. The Snares Islands do not have a marine reserve around them, while currently there is no fishing activity around the Snares Islands, this does not mean fishing could not occur (IUCN Consultation, 2024).
Efforts are also being made to reduce impacts of fishing on marine species that occur in the site but these species are also affected by fishing outside the boundaries (IUCN consultation, 2024).
Monitoring
There are a variety of monitoring programmes set up on the island by researchers and conservation officers. These include long running (30+ years) population and tracking programmes on albatrosses and sea lions as well as sporadic monitoring of a range of other species. A disease outbreak within a vulnerable population, such as the New Zealand sea lion, is of particular concern; and although such outbreaks occur naturally, human contact is an additional risk factor (Robertson and Chilvers, 2011). Consequently, Department of Conservation has introduced measures to minimise biosecurity risks. For example, a quarantine store is maintained on the mainland, where all researchers’ and conservation officer’s gear is inspected for potential pest species and cleaned; and all vessels undergo quarantine inspections and cleaning before going to the islands (Department of Conservation, 2016).
A visitor impact monitoring programme (vegetation, soils, wildlife, visitor experience, historic fabric) at the tourist sites was considered in 2016 but was paused before being restarted in 2023 (Department of Conservation, 2016; IUCN Consultation, 2024; Department of Conservation 2024b).
A visitor impact monitoring programme (vegetation, soils, wildlife, visitor experience, historic fabric) at the tourist sites was considered in 2016 but was paused before being restarted in 2023 (Department of Conservation, 2016; IUCN Consultation, 2024; Department of Conservation 2024b).
Research
Several of the species that contribute to the Outstanding Universal Value of the site are part of the monitoring and research programme that is administered by the Department of Conservation’s Conservation Services Programme. Research on the islands by other organisations is managed through a permit system. To date, there have been tight controls on the type and impacts of research permitted. Internal and external research is reported on hoiho / yellow-eyed penguins, Antipodean albatrosses, Southern right whales, New Zealand sea lions, Snares crested penguin, Eastern rockhopper penguin, Erect-crested penguin populations, and other species of seabirds (IUCN Consultation, 2017).
Effectiveness of management system and governance in addressing threats outside the site
The primary long-term threats come from outside the World Heritage site and include new invasive species introductions, marine by-catch, HPAI, and climate change, the latter being beyond the control of the management agency. Impressive efforts have taken place to eradicate historical invasive mammal species from many parts of the site. However, pigs, cats and mice persist on the main Auckland Island. The Department of Conservation has a commendable goal to eradicate all introduced mammal species from the islands by 2050 (MBIE, 2024). Controls on the by-catch of relevant species, especially albatrosses and New Zealand sea lions, are generally improving when within the control of the New Zealand Government but this issue is ongoing in international waters. The Coastal Plan rules regulating vessel hull and niche area fouling will minimise the risk of marine invasive species incursions.
Effectiveness of management system and governance in addressing threats inside the site
The management system in place for the site and the current governance arrangements have been largely effective at addressing threats inside the site. Benefitting from its isolation and limited visitation the primary long-term threats come from outside the World Heritage site, with many being beyond the control of the management agency. Impressive efforts have taken place to eradicate historical invasive mammal species from many parts of the site. However, pigs, cats and mice persist on the main Auckland Island. The Department of Conservation has a commendable goal to eradicate all introduced mammal species from the islands by 2050 (MBIE, 2024). Other key threats including increasing tourism are being addressed through effective management. While a formal management effectiveness assessment appears not to have been undertaken for the site, it is believed that as long as the current effective management programme is maintained, including high biosecurity standards, the removal of historical invasive species and tight management of tourism, the values of the site will be maintained or enhanced.While a formal management effectiveness assessment appears not to have been undertaken for the site, it is believed that as long as the current effective management programme is maintained, including high biosecurity standards, the removal of invasive species and tight management of tourism, the values of the site will be maintained or enhanced.
The protection and management of the New Zealand Sub-Antarctic Islands continues to be overall very effective, supported by the isolation of the islands. Improvements in protection and management include updating the Conservation Management Strategy in 2016; increasing the number of marine reserves adjoining the terrestrial area of the World Heritage site; implementation of the Coastal Plan in 2017; and the recent (2022) contracting of maritime expertise to manage navigation safety at the islands, which assists in reducing the risk of navigation safety incident that could result in fuel spill and biosecurity breach. Protection and management can be improved primarily through ensuring compliance with the strict biosecurity policies and practices which are articulated in the CMS and Coastal Plan and by increased funding to enable the maintenance of species research infrastructure on the islands and enhancing biosecurity surveillance work.
Exceptional diversity and abundance of birds
High Concern
Trend
Deteriorating
The high standard of protection and management, coupled with a relatively low threat environment have ensured many of the values of the site are being maintained. However many marine species including albatrosses, penguins have seen significant drops in their populations, which poses medium to long-term risks to their species / subspecies (Francis et al., 2015). This is particularly critical due to the prolonged breeding cycle of some species (Hiscock and Chilvers, 2014; Hiscock, McClelland and Chilvers, 2014). Many of the threats that have led to these drops occur outside the site. Recent surveys found the first records of petrels breeding on 2 islands of the Auckland Islands along with observations of Antarctic terns breeding on Alert Stack, where they had not been recorded breeding before (Wilson et al., 2018). However this work also noted a lack of breeding observations for some species in locations they had previously been recorded. Recent detection of HPAI in bird populations in Antarctica indicate the ability of this virus to spread through isolated populations (Aguado et al. 2024). While no records have been reported from the site the potential for impact on both the bird and mammal species present is enormous.
Distinctive examples of evolutionary processes which result in high levels of endemism
Low Concern
Trend
Stable
Due to a high level of legal and physical protection, along with good biosecurity and restoration work, largely in the form of eradicating many introduced mammals, the terrestrially based species and the site’s high levels of endemism remain intact. Effective management and a low threat environment combine to ensure values are retained.
Preponderance of ‘megaherbs’ within the plant biodiversity
Data Deficient
Trend
Data Deficient
The islands are home to the spectacular subantarctic megaherbs, including the daisy genus Pleurophyllum, which is endemic to the New Zealand subantarctic biological region. The Auckland Islands are home to the colourful rātā forests and the southernmost tree ferns in the world. The isolation of the islands has helped to ensure limited impacts on the flora, including the megaherbs. Efforts to eradicate invasive species are ongoing and while there is limited information on the status of the megaherbs there has been recovery of these since the removal of invasive mammals from Campbell and Antipodes Islands (IUCN consultation, 2024).
Rich flora
Good
Trend
Stable
The Subantarctic Islands are significant island refuges for a range of plants found nowhere else in the world. The islands are home to 200 species of indigenous vascular plants and there is a high level of endemic species including some that are otherwise only found on Macquarie Island. There is very little information available about the status of the flora of the islands but with limited visitation, eradication of invasive mammal species on some of the islands, and strict biosecurity protocols in place it is assumed that this value remains in good condition.
Outstanding array of endemic and threatened species among the marine fauna
Low Concern
Trend
Stable
The New Zealand Sub-Antarctic Islands, and the ocean that surrounds and links them, support an extraordinary and outstanding array of endemic and threatened species among the marine fauna. The islands are home to a population of endemic and endangered New Zealand sea lion with breeding populations of this species now concentrated in the Auckland Islands, Campbell Island, and Rakiura / Stewart Island. Monitoring of this species indicates the species is decreasing throughout its range (Chilvers, 2008, Robertson and Chilvers, 2011) despite by-catch mitigation strategies being effective (Roberts and Edwards 2023). This variation in population trend and the range of threats to the species highlights the importance of efforts to reduce pup mortality (Hamilton and Baker, 2019) and understand the role of nutritional stress (DOC & MPI 2017). The endemic yellow-eyed penguin /hoiho (Megadyptes antipodes) are the second rarest penguin worldwide, remain poorly studied and quantified on Campbell and Auckland Islands, although more recent attention has indicated foraging range, diet, and disease baselines. The presence of these species and the population sizes and trends highlights the importance of monitoring populations, especially in the face of the potential for impacts from the highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI which has been linked to the death of at least 24,000 sea lions (Otaria flavescens) in Peru, Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil between January-October 2023 (Plaza et al., 2024), and which has been detected in bird populations in Antarctica (WOAH, 2024). The Auckland Islands are the main calving ground for Southern right whales in New Zealand. The number of Southern right whales using the waters of Auckland and Campbell Islands is continuing to increase (Zhang et al., 2024). Studies on vocalisation have indicated the whales are present in the area for longer than previously thought (Webster et al., 2019) and they can be observed year round with a peak period between May and October.
Assessment of the current state and trend of World Heritage values
Stable
The site contains five geographically isolated but linked island groups containing a unique assemblage of wildlife and plants. While there has been a legacy of past human impact on many of the larger islands including fire, introduced mammals and non-native plants, many of the smaller islands remain near pristine and provide breeding sites for a wide range of seabirds and marine mammals, many of which are endemic. Due to a sustained history of effective management, including the removal of introduced mammals and tight visitor controls, many of the islands are slowly recovering. Nevertheless, some marine based species including albatrosses, penguins and sea lions have seen significant drops in their populations, which is particularly critical due to the prolonged breeding cycle of some species. A number of breeding sites for some of these species are showing population declines and without monitoring across all areas within the World Heritage site the overall trends are difficult to determine. Many of the threats impacting these species occur outside the site and are beyond the control of the management agency, for example climate change and commercial fishing by-catch. The threat posed from highly pathogenic avian influenza could devastate seabird and marine mammal populations if it were to reach the site. The external threats from outside the site highlight the importance of effective protection within the boundaries of the site and continued monitoring.
Additional information
Wilderness and iconic features,
Sacred natural sites or landscapes,
Cultural identity and sense of belonging
The islands hold deep spiritual value for the Ngāi Tahu people as the traditional owners of the area within which the World Heritage site is located.
Due to their harsh climate, rugged nature and isolation, the New Zealand Sub-Antarctic represent true wilderness to many people. Yet with appropriate planning and permission, the public can experience these unique islands.
Due to their harsh climate, rugged nature and isolation, the New Zealand Sub-Antarctic represent true wilderness to many people. Yet with appropriate planning and permission, the public can experience these unique islands.
Outdoor recreation and tourism
Tightly controlled tourism provides important advocacy for the islands and for wilderness areas in general. Impacts from tourism are minimised through limiting the numbers of visitors that can land on the islands, the locations they can visit, and requiring strict biosecurity measures. Monitoring tourism impacts on soil, vegetation, fauna and cultural heritage is also underway.
Importance for research
The site has critically contributed to the understanding of numerous endemic marine species as well as island ecology and specific endemic and native terrestrial species. Studies on the geology of the island groups are increasingly adding to our knowledge of island formation but further work is also required (Rainsley et al., 2019; Scott and Turnbull, 2019) and research on the range of species that occur in the site is ongoing.
The main benefits of New Zealand’s Sub-Antarctic Islands are their nature conservation value, historical and wilderness values, and significant knowledge and research values for the numerous endemic fauna and flora species and to some extent the nature based tourism and related benefits. The islands hold deep spiritual value for the Ngāi Tahu people as the traditional owners of the area within which the World Heritage site is located. There may be unexploited synergies between some of these benefits, such as between traditional natural resource use and nature conservation on the one hand and tourism on the other hand.
| № | Organization | Brief description of Active Projects | Website |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Department of Conservation | 2-year timeframe: actions to prepare the proposed Visitor Management Plan | |
| 2 | Department of Conservation | Preparatory work to ensure future eradication of pigs, cats, and mice from Auckland Island is set up to succeed. Includes securing funding, completing required R&D and project planning. 2-year timeframe. |
https://www.doc.govt.nz/maukahuka
|
| 3 | Department of Conservation | The Department of Conservation coordinates and administers a large-scale, multi-year, multi-species, multi-island work programme across the Subantarctic Islands. This work programme focusses on providing accurate, up-to-date, demographic and spatial information crucial to fisheries management for a range of species of high conservation concern, including the 12 species listed on Annex 1 of the Agreement for the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels, New Zealand sealions, and various penguin species. |
https://www.doc.govt.nz/our-work/conservation-services-programme/
|
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