Okavango Delta
Country
Botswana
Inscribed in
2014
Criteria
(vii)
(ix)
(x)
The conservation outlook for this site has been assessed as "good with some concerns" in the latest assessment cycle. Explore the Conservation Outlook Assessment for the site below. You have the option to access the summary, or the detailed assessment.
This delta in north-west Botswana comprises permanent marshlands and seasonally flooded plains. It is one of the very few major interior delta systems that do not flow into a sea or ocean, with a wetland system that is almost intact. One of the unique characteristics of the site is that the annual flooding from the River Okavango occurs during the dry season, with the result that the native plants and animals have synchronized their biological cycles with these seasonal rains and floods. It is an exceptional example of the interaction between climatic, hydrological and biological processes. The Okavango Delta is home to some of the world’s most endangered species of large mammal, such as the cheetah, white rhinoceros, black rhinoceros, African wild dog and lion. © UNESCO
Summary
2025 Conservation Outlook
Finalised on
11 Oct 2025
Good with some concerns
Current state and trend of VALUES
Low Concern
Overall THREATS
Overall PROTECTION and MANAGEMENT
Full assessment
Description of values
Africa’s most extensive inland delta without an outlet to the sea, lying within a desert environment
Criterion
(vii)
The Okavango Delta is a huge inland delta, created where the waters of the Okavango river slow on reaching northern Botswana and thus depositing their bedloads to continue creating the inland delta. At the lower end of the Okavango Delta the waters disappear into the sands of the Kalahari desert without reaching the sea. It is the juxtaposition of this vibrant wetland with its arid desert surroundings which led to it becoming known as the ‘Jewel of the Kalahari’ (Ross, 2003).
Annual cycle of flooding
Criterion
(vii)
The annual floodtide, which pulses through the wetland system every year revitalizes ecosystems and serves as a critical life-force during the peak of the area’s dry season (during June/July). As the floodwaters extend into lands around the wetland’s margins the pulse of new growth across the seasonal grasslands draws in herds of large herbivores, driving their migration patterns across a much wider landscape. In an extraordinary way plants and animals have adapted their lifecycles, growth and reproductive behaviour to the arrival of the flood-waters (as well as the arrival of seasonal rains, which allows dispersal to other areas as the waters of the delta recede later in the year) (SoOUV, 2014).
An outstanding example of the complexity, inter-dependence and interplay of climatic, geo-morphological, hydrological, and biological processes
Criterion
(ix)
The Okavango Delta World Heritage property is an outstanding example of the complexity, inter-dependence and interplay of climatic, geo-morphological, hydrological, and biological processes. The continuous transformation of geomorphic features such as islands, channels, riverbanks, flood plains, oxbow lakes and lagoons in turn influences the abiotic and biotic dynamics of the Delta including dryland grasslands and woodland habitats. The site exemplifies several ecological processes related to flood inundation, channelization, nutrient cycling and the associated biological processes of breeding, growth, migration, colonization and plant succession. These ecological processes provide a scientific benchmark to compare similar and human-impacted systems elsewhere and give insight into the long-term evolution of such wetland systems (SoOUV, 2014). The delta extends over an area half the size of Belgium, with 6,000km2 of permanent swamps and 7-12,000 km2 of seasonally flooded grassland. Remarkably, it remains in a largely pristine condition, unaffected by any major developments either within the delta itself, or anywhere along the course of its inflowing rivers and their tributaries.
Rich diversity of species across many taxa, with significant populations of African mega-fauna
Criterion
(x)
The delta supports a high diversity of natural habitats including permanent and seasonal rivers and lagoons, permanent swamps with reeds and papyrus, seasonal and occasionally flooded grasslands, riparian forest and woodlands, dry woodlands and island communities (GoB, 2012). Each of these habitats has a distinct species composition with strong representation of aquatic organisms across most taxa. A total of 1061species of plants (belonging to 134 families and 530 genera), 89 fish, 64 reptiles, 482 species of birds and 130 species of mammals has been recorded (SoOUV, 2014).
Habitat for important populations of rare and endangered species
Criterion
(x)
The delta provides a refuge to globally significant numbers of rare and endangered large mammals, including wild dogs, lions and cheetahs. Currently, white and black rhinoceros are locally extinct in the Delta. It is also recognized as an Important Bird Area (BirdLife, 2017), harbouring 24 species of globally threatened birds, including among others, six species of vulture, Southern Ground-Hornbill, Wattled Crane and Slaty Egret. Thirty-three species of water birds occur in the Okavango Delta in numbers that exceed 0.5% of their global or regional population (SoOUV, 2014). The Okavango supports significant populations of wetland-adapted mammals such as the sitatunga, red lechwe and southern reedbuck, Finally Botswana supports the world’s largest population of elephants, numbering around 130,000: the Okavango Delta is the core area for this species’ survival (SoOUV, 2014).
Landscape of exceptional and rare beauty
Criterion
(vii)
Permanent crystal-clear waters and dissolved nutrients transform the otherwise dry Kalahari Desert habitat into a scenic landscape of exceptional and rare beauty, and sustain an ecosystem of remarkable habitat and species diversity, thereby maintaining its ecological resilience and amazing natural phenomena (SoOUV, 2014). The natural beauty of the emerald-green ‘Jewel of the Kalahari’ (Ross, 2003) in its semi-arid desert setting is legendary. Its crystal-clear waters meandering through the ever-changing channels of the delta, its islands and waterways teeming with wildlife create an unparalleled range of vistas of exceptional beauty. Furthermore, the size and difficulty of accessing the area (except by mekoros, boats and light aircraft) ensure that it maintains exceptional wilderness qualities with very little development or management infrastructure.
Indigenous peoples knowledge and connection
Indigenous communities, such as the //Anikhwe and Bugakhwe, have deep ecological knowledge and a cultural connection to the Okavango Delta.
Assessment information
Although the delta remains in a remarkably pristine condition, there are growing threats, most notably from climate change affecting hydrological regimes. This threat is exacerbated by water abstraction further upstream in Namibia and Angola for dam developments and increasingly for irrigation schemes to support small-scale agriculture but more recently also larger irrigation schemes. Although the threats to large megafauna, particularly elephants (Loxodonta africana), have increased significantly in recent years, the State Party has significantly enhanced its anti-poaching efforts and legal hunting is managed within Controlled Hunting Areas. Recent data indicated that poaching of white and black rhinos has decreased and the elephant populations within the site are stable. However, there is some concern over the high number of elephant carcasses being recorded in 2024 and reports of vulture and lion deaths are concerning. Although the mass mortality event of elephants in 2020 seems to be an isolated incident, this is compounded by the disruption of natural movement routes by the veterinary cordon fences. The reconvening of the Botswana Cordon Fences Committee may address this issue. Several of these have now been removed (or allowed to collapse), so animals can disperse more widely and there is scope for further restoration of natural movement patterns. Widespread and uncontrollable fires in the Delta are a recurring threat, although management steps have been taken to control these. Overgrazing along the Kavango river poses further threats affecting water quality downstream. Minor threats continue to present themselves from tourism-related disturbances, use of the area’s natural resources by local communities, hydrocarbon and wastewater discharge pollution, as well as the spread of an invasive aquatic flora, which have been added to by novel threats such as illegal sand mining which law enforcers have found challenging to control.
Fire & Fire Management
(Uncontrolled fire)
Inside site
, Widespread(15-50%)
Outside site
Wildland fires are an issue of primary concern within the property, affecting rates of ecological processes, community structure and diversity. Ecological processes include vegetation succession and production, nutrient cycling, hydrological flows, animal dispersals, and habitat quality and functioning (State Party of Botswana, 2022). Most of the fires in the property occur within the permanent and seasonal floodplains and spread out to the adjacent drylands. The higher fire frequency on floodplains is driven by high biomass production and abundant fuel load that accumulates during the dry season (State Party of Botswana, 2024). Fires are frequently and deliberately started by people throughout the delta to (1) stimulate new growth for livestock grazing (2) improve stands of reeds and thatching grass, (3) attract wildlife to areas of new growth for tourist viewing, (4) clear access routes through the wetlands to fishing sites, and (5) clear agricultural land around the margins of the delta.
The fire history reveals that large sections (35,990 km2/ 25%) of the Okavango Delta and its surrounds have not burned since 2000 (NGOWP, 2023). These are areas within the panhandle and main distributaries of the delta as well as large sections to the southeast of the mapped region. The largest burn area occurred within the frequency of 1-5 burns (71,192 km2/ 49%) between 2000 and 2022. The majority of the Okavango delta burned at this frequency (1-5 burns) between 2000 and 2022. The highest burn frequencies occurred in the northwest of the mapped area.
According to Cassidy et al. (2022), much of southern Africa’s savanna wildernesses experience wildfires and burn unchecked. This is particularly true for the woodland savannas of northern Botswana, where wildfires originate outside of management areas and are left uncontrolled (Cassidy et al., 2022). The NGOWP (2023) analysis reveals similar patterns in that the northern sections of the mapped area have experienced near year on year burning due to limited resources for fire management and remoteness. There is concern that these severe annual wildfires that occur around wilderness areas may disturb woodland tracts within reserves and protected areas. Cassidy et al. (2022) conclude that annual fire frequencies are far higher than would be expected without anthropogenic ignition. The role of human activity and increasing fire frequency remains a concern for this region.
However, the impacts of fire are generally low, especially given the improving fire management evidenced by programmes such as the The Tsodilo Enclave Bush Fire Risk Management Strategy, which has seen a reduction of the impact of annual fire outbreaks in the area (IUCN Consultation, 2020). The management authority provides local communities with firefighting equipment and community based fire management training. Seasonal fire camps and rapid response teams have been useful to rapidly respond to fires and a network of fire breaks is maintained across the property to reduce fuel load (State Party of Botswana, 2024).
The fire history reveals that large sections (35,990 km2/ 25%) of the Okavango Delta and its surrounds have not burned since 2000 (NGOWP, 2023). These are areas within the panhandle and main distributaries of the delta as well as large sections to the southeast of the mapped region. The largest burn area occurred within the frequency of 1-5 burns (71,192 km2/ 49%) between 2000 and 2022. The majority of the Okavango delta burned at this frequency (1-5 burns) between 2000 and 2022. The highest burn frequencies occurred in the northwest of the mapped area.
According to Cassidy et al. (2022), much of southern Africa’s savanna wildernesses experience wildfires and burn unchecked. This is particularly true for the woodland savannas of northern Botswana, where wildfires originate outside of management areas and are left uncontrolled (Cassidy et al., 2022). The NGOWP (2023) analysis reveals similar patterns in that the northern sections of the mapped area have experienced near year on year burning due to limited resources for fire management and remoteness. There is concern that these severe annual wildfires that occur around wilderness areas may disturb woodland tracts within reserves and protected areas. Cassidy et al. (2022) conclude that annual fire frequencies are far higher than would be expected without anthropogenic ignition. The role of human activity and increasing fire frequency remains a concern for this region.
However, the impacts of fire are generally low, especially given the improving fire management evidenced by programmes such as the The Tsodilo Enclave Bush Fire Risk Management Strategy, which has seen a reduction of the impact of annual fire outbreaks in the area (IUCN Consultation, 2020). The management authority provides local communities with firefighting equipment and community based fire management training. Seasonal fire camps and rapid response teams have been useful to rapidly respond to fires and a network of fire breaks is maintained across the property to reduce fuel load (State Party of Botswana, 2024).
Recreational Activities
(Disturbance from tourism)
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
There are currently sound policies and procedures to regulate tourism in place, for example the Okavango Delta Management Plan (ODMP) 2021-2028, The Tourism Policy of 2021, The Wildlife Conservation Policy of 2013, The Community Based Natural Resource Management Policy of 2007, National Ecotourism Strategy of 2002, the Ngamiland Land Use Plan and National Tourism Master Plan and Action Plan (2022-2032) (State Party of Botswana, 2024). Nevertheless, there are some localized problems related to tourism including the creation of illegal roads (particularly in Moremi Game Reserve), pollution and waste disposal, forest fires and disturbance of plant and animals (especially nesting birds). Most noticeably, noise pollution from low-flying aircraft and boats can be a nuisance, affecting the ‘wilderness experience’ of visitors and potentially the wildlife. Another concern is the flow of wastewater into the system. Previous monitoring results indicated that wastewater discharge facilities were not complying with Botswana's environmental discharge standards. However, a study is needed to assess whether these standards are realistic and appropriate for current conditions, as their basis is unclear and they were established before the introduction of most modern sewage treatment technologies. The size of the site, combined with the low volume tourism model adopted by operators make tourism of low threat overall.
Invasive / Other Problematic Species, Genes & Pathogens, Invasive Non-Native/ Alien Species
(Invasive alien species)
Invasive/problematic species
Ailanthus excelsa
Salvinia molesta
Mimosa pigra
Leucaena leucacephala
Acanthospermum hispidum
Xanthium strumarium
Parthenium hysterophorus
Verbesina encelioides
Other invasive species names
Flavaria bidentis
Inside site
, Widespread(15-50%)
Outside site
Invasive alien species in the Okavango Delta are mostly recorded around Mohembo and Shakawe with the exception of Salvinia molesta which has been recorded elsewhere (NGOWP, 2023). The floating water fern, Salvinia molesta (native to South America) became established in the Okavango in the 1980s and has become widespread. It chokes water channels and prevents light and oxygen penetration into sub-surface waters, impacting the aquatic ecology. Some success in controlling this invasive weed has been achieved through the propagation of a weevil (Cyrtobagous salviniae) as a bio-control agent, but Salvinia infestation remains a significant problem and is expanding (GoB, 2012). In 2017 a new salvinia infestation of significant nature observed along Xudum River at Nxaraga area (State Party of Botswana, 2020), which has now spread up to Xigera Lagoon in the Moremi Game Reserve (as of February 2025) so it is now present in almost half the Okavango Delta wetland extent. The Aquatic Vegetation Control Unit (AVCU) along with NGO support continues to apply and monitor the Salvinia biological control agent Cyrtobagous salviniae. Salvinia biological control has been thoroughly established in 64 sites within the core zone. As it has proven to be effective, it is now the preferred strategy of control (State Party of Botswana, 2024). Tour guides in the core area have also been trained to monitor and control Salvinia and weevils breeding pools have been set up to provide an on-going supply of the biological control agent (Kurugundla 2015) but there is urgent need for a more coordinated and resourced response to prevent the spread further across the wetland.
Another invasive alien plant of concern is the tree Ailanthus excelsa, which poses a significant ecological threat to the Okavango Delta World Heritage Site, with its spread now confirmed in all villages south and west of the Delta, including Jedibe/Jao Village at the heart of the protected area. This highly aggressive species thrives in disturbed areas, rapidly outcompeting native vegetation, altering soil chemistry, and reducing biodiversity by inhibiting the growth of indigenous plants through allelopathic compounds. Its ability to spread both vegetatively and through prolific seed production makes containment extremely challenging, and without urgent management interventions, Ailanthus excelsa could disrupt critical wetland and riparian ecosystems, threaten wildlife habitat, and compromise the natural integrity of this globally significant landscape (Soler & Izquierdo, 2024). Immediate eradication and monitoring efforts are needed to prevent further establishment and mitigate its impact on the Okavango Delta’s fragile ecological balance.
Other notable invasive alien species include Mimosa pigra, Leucaena leucocephala, several species of Datura, several species of Senna, Acanthospermum hispidum, several species of Argemone, Xanthium strumarium, Flavaria bidentis, Parthenium hysterophorus, Verbesina encelioides among others. Many of these species are being spread with the movement of vehicles and building supplies into the lodges in the Okavango Delta. For others the seed is disbursed by water (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
Another invasive alien plant of concern is the tree Ailanthus excelsa, which poses a significant ecological threat to the Okavango Delta World Heritage Site, with its spread now confirmed in all villages south and west of the Delta, including Jedibe/Jao Village at the heart of the protected area. This highly aggressive species thrives in disturbed areas, rapidly outcompeting native vegetation, altering soil chemistry, and reducing biodiversity by inhibiting the growth of indigenous plants through allelopathic compounds. Its ability to spread both vegetatively and through prolific seed production makes containment extremely challenging, and without urgent management interventions, Ailanthus excelsa could disrupt critical wetland and riparian ecosystems, threaten wildlife habitat, and compromise the natural integrity of this globally significant landscape (Soler & Izquierdo, 2024). Immediate eradication and monitoring efforts are needed to prevent further establishment and mitigate its impact on the Okavango Delta’s fragile ecological balance.
Other notable invasive alien species include Mimosa pigra, Leucaena leucocephala, several species of Datura, several species of Senna, Acanthospermum hispidum, several species of Argemone, Xanthium strumarium, Flavaria bidentis, Parthenium hysterophorus, Verbesina encelioides among others. Many of these species are being spread with the movement of vehicles and building supplies into the lodges in the Okavango Delta. For others the seed is disbursed by water (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
Mining & Quarrying
(Illegal sand mining)
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
Outside site
There has been an increase of illegal sand mining of sand and stone aggregate of various types to meet the growing demand for infrastructural developments in the District. This is more prevalent around major villages such as Maun, Shakawe, Gumare, Nokaneng, etc. and smaller villages such as Ngarange, Seondomboro, and Seronga (IUCN Consultation, 2025). Of particular concern is illegal sand extraction from the Okavango River channels during the dry season. The Department of Environmental Affairs with the help of other law enforcement agencies are finding it hard to contain the perpetrators (IUCN Consultation, 2020).
This is a growing threat - especially upstream on the Kavango river in Namibia where there is extensive impact on the floodplains and river banks.
A few kilometres upriver from Ngepi lodge indiscriminate mining of sand along the river bank has been noted that, left unchecked, may escalate to other areas and result in erosion, physicochemical changes to the water, agricultural losses and loss of biodiversity (NGOWP, 2023b).
This is a growing threat - especially upstream on the Kavango river in Namibia where there is extensive impact on the floodplains and river banks.
A few kilometres upriver from Ngepi lodge indiscriminate mining of sand along the river bank has been noted that, left unchecked, may escalate to other areas and result in erosion, physicochemical changes to the water, agricultural losses and loss of biodiversity (NGOWP, 2023b).
Unknown Threats
(Mass elephant mortality event)
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
Outside site
An investigation into the sudden deaths of at least 350 elephants in Botswana in 2020 has determined that the likely cause was a "toxic bloom" of open water contaminated by a species of cyanobacteria that produced cyanotoxins, poisoning the elephants' watering holes. Researchers found that around 20 watering holes across approximately 6,000 square kilometers (2,316 square miles) in Botswana’s Okavango Delta had been affected (Lomeo et al. 2024). No further deaths reported since then and so these appear to be a confined incident (IUCN Consultation, 2020).
Roads, Trails & Railroads
(Infrastructure developments)
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Outside site
The construction of a cable-stayed bridge across the panhandle area of the property, along with the hardening of the associated approach road, was initiated at Mohembo based on a 2009 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), which was conducted before the site's inscription as a World Heritage Site (World Heritage Committee, 2018). Consequently, the measures outlined in the EIA were insufficient, as they did not account for the site's World Heritage status or the specific values for which it was designated. While the 2020 State Party report acknowledged that the 2009 EIA could not be revised as requested by the World Heritage Committee, an audit of the Environmental Management Plan (EMP) for the Mohembo Bridge project was conducted. The audit identified multiple non-conformities, raising concerns about potential threats to the site if these issues were not adequately addressed. The bridge was completed and became operational in 2022 and now that the bridge is fully operational, any construction-related impacts are no longer relevant. However, the potential negative impact of bright floodlights erected on the bridge on migratory fish has been noted and warrants further investigation (IUCN Consultation, 2025). Other key road infrastructure developments in the buffer zone to be constructed in 2024/25 include the Mohembo-Gudigwa Road, the Sehitwa-Shakawe Road and the Maun-Sehitwa Road (State Party of Botswana, 2024).
Hunting, Collecting & Controlling Terrestrial Animals
(Poaching)
Other targeted species names
African elephant (Loxodonta africana); white and black rhino; lion (Panthera leo)
Inside site
, Widespread(15-50%)
Outside site
The WH Committee has expressed concern over reported increases in poaching (UNESCO, 2023). According to the State Party, although poaching increased until 2020, it has since decreased. The State Party reports that the poaching of rhino has sharply declined from 62 animals poached in 2020 (the peak) to 6 poached in 2022. This downward trajectory has been maintained into 2023, and is in part attributed to management measures (State Party of Botswana, 2024). Poaching of elephants has been stable with 10 poached in 2022, 8 in 2023, and 8 in 2024. While an aerial survey in 2022 suggests a healthy elephant population in Botswana there are concerns over the high number of elephant carcasses found in northern Botswana - A total of 332 elephant carcasses in a population of 131,909 elephants were sighted in northern Botswana, inclusive of areas outside the Property (State Party of Botswana, 2024). The reported carcass ratio (12.8%) was the highest in the region. The high carcass ratio can be attributed to several factors such as poaching and diseases. For example, cyanobacteria were associated with the 350 elephants that died in 2020 in the eastern Okavango Panhandle (e.g. Lomeo et al., 2024).
There has also been a rise of reports of vulture (e.g. white-backed) deaths through consuming poisoned meat (e.g. Tjinyeka, 2023; AFP, 2022; IUCN Consultation, 2025). This has been linked to the retaliatory killing of predators by farmers. According to LionAid (2025) targeted poaching of lions is on the rise in Botswana and evidence of directly poached carcasses close to the northern town of Maun have been recorded in 2025. Four carcasses with paws, heads and pieces of skin removed were found near NG34, a community concession that uses land proximate to the Moremi Game Reserve within the Okavango Delta World Heritage Site. Lion parts have also been discovered just outside Maun indicating that a market for such parts has been established, although ultimate destinations could lie outside Botswana. The use of traditional medicine derived from wildlife has long been established in the country.
There has also been a rise of reports of vulture (e.g. white-backed) deaths through consuming poisoned meat (e.g. Tjinyeka, 2023; AFP, 2022; IUCN Consultation, 2025). This has been linked to the retaliatory killing of predators by farmers. According to LionAid (2025) targeted poaching of lions is on the rise in Botswana and evidence of directly poached carcasses close to the northern town of Maun have been recorded in 2025. Four carcasses with paws, heads and pieces of skin removed were found near NG34, a community concession that uses land proximate to the Moremi Game Reserve within the Okavango Delta World Heritage Site. Lion parts have also been discovered just outside Maun indicating that a market for such parts has been established, although ultimate destinations could lie outside Botswana. The use of traditional medicine derived from wildlife has long been established in the country.
Biological System Management
(Veterinary control measures including veterinary control fences)
Inside site
, Widespread(15-50%)
Outside site
Botswana’s livestock industry has for decades depended on the prevention of disease transmission between wildlife and domestic stock through (1) the use of high multi-strand veterinary cordon fences to stop the movement of large wild mammals into designated livestock grazing areas, and (2) the eradication of tse-tse flies through chemical spraying. Most of the delta is designated a ‘livestock free zone’, with the southern boundary of the core area defined by the line of a veterinary fence. This stops livestock coming into contact with wildlife, but it also blocks the traditional migration and dispersal of wildlife to the south. Other veterinary fences lie to the east and north of the world heritage site, but these have been abandoned (or removed) so migration routes towards the Makgadikgadi Pans (to the East), Chobe National Park, and other areas have been re-established. There are continuing efforts to rationalize the veterinary cordon fencing through the Department of Veterinary Services continued monitoring of the effectiveness of the fences. The Botswana Government Policy on veterinary fences stipulates that a periodic Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) be conducted every five years on the veterinary cordon fencing to determine the effectiveness of such fencing, however these have not been carried out due to a lack of funding (State Party of Botswana, 2018). It has been suggested, that although veterinary fences have blocked wildlife migratory routes, the Southern and Northern Buffalo Fences have played a significant role in protecting the core parts of the delta from encroachment by livestock (GoB 2015). Nonetheless, the State Party has been requested to continue efforts to rationalize veterinary cordon fencing, removing them when possible, given the lack of reporting on this issue and the major impediment to wildlife migrations represented by these fences at the time of inscription (UNESCO, 2018; World Heritage Committee, 2018). In April 2019 the Botswana Cordon Fences Committee was re-instated after 20 years (AHEAD, 2019), and should be a good forum to improve the gaps - identified as: Fences blocking migration routes of wildlife; No fences have been decommissioned in the north but many in the south; Disease status in adjacent countries are not congruent; No clear guidance on fence realignment or decommissioning (AHEAD 2019). Efforts are made to rationalize the use of veterinary fences, commonly used to avoid disease transfer between wild and domestic animals and to prevent human-wildlife conflict. One Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) for the fences has been conducted, with an EIA for another sub-region underway (UNESCO, 2023). Wildlife corridors have been identified in the eastern Okavango Panhandle of the Property in collaboration with Eco-exist Botswana (a conservation NGO), to allow the free movement of wildlife in and out of the Property. The wildlife corridors will also guide land allocation for different uses and ensure land uses such as agro-pastoralism, human settlements and infrastructural developments are not undertaken within the established wildlife corridors (State Party of Botswana, 2024).
Gathering, Harvesting & Controlling Terrestrial Plants & Fungi, Logging, Harvesting & Controlling Trees, Fishing, Harvesting & Controlling Aquatic Species
(Overgrazing and gillnet fishing)
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Outside site
Local people have rights to use certain natural resources within the delta, including fish, reeds and thatching grass, medicinal plants and poles for house-building, as well as being allowed to keep cattle and other domestic stock in the area (Botswana 2014). The ecological impact of this is limited within the site but greater in upstream areas, causing negative impacts on the property itself. The local communities include descendants of the original San hunter-gatherer inhabitants of the area, as well as more recent immigrants from other ethnic groups. As of the 2022 census, populations of the three villages within the site are: Jao Village: 329 residents, Ditshiping Village: 150 residents and Xaxaba Village: 303 residents. In the interior of the delta, resource use tends to be restricted to peripheral areas close to villages outside the core zone of the World Heritage site.
Grazing upstream along the Kavango river and generally in the panhandle is increasing, impacting the riparian/wetland habitat. In the Kavango in Namibia river banks are denuded by over-grazing resulting in erosion and loss of riparian habitat. The floodplains are mainly used for grazing as well as fishing during the late flood season. Overgrazing and the destruction of riparian vegetation have a big impact on the spawning fish communities. There is a paucity of scientific research on the impact of these land uses along the Kavango River. Influxes of people to permanent inland waterbodies typically comes with deforestation, natural resource depletion, pollution and overgrazing and requires careful management of land use practices, municipal service delivery and natural resources. Apparent rapid population growth on the upper Kavango in the Mukwe constituency -especially around Nkurenkuru- should be monitored closely and any water quality impacts mitigated timeously so that downstream regions are not impacted (NGOWP, 2023b).
Livestock, mostly cattle and increasingly goats, roam freely and are widespread along the Kavango relying on the river and its banks for water and food. Numbers have increased immensely since 2017 and the impacts on habitat and water quality are evident. In places, trampling, overgrazing and copious
excrement from livestock are expected to impact water quality with an anticipated spike at the onset of the rains. However, it should be noted that the rainy season in the Kavango region starts several months before the annual flood arrives from Angola so pollution from cattle excrement will take some
time to flush from the system. The compounding effect of rapid, concomitantly increasing human and cattle populations is resulting in swift deforestation of indigenous vegetation in the riparian zone and subsequent loss of indigenous habitat and biodiversity. Because of overgrazing, cattle and hippos attempt to feed on crops, thereby forcing people to construct fences around their plots. Indigenous trees (notably Waterberries) are primarily cut down for this purpose, making space for alien invasive plants. In places, dense stands of giant sensitive weed (Mimosa pigra) have taken over. Channel morphology and water quality is affected by cattle wading through papyrus and other aquatic vegetation (NGOWP, 2023b).
Gill netting of fish also occurs, however the extent within the WH site is unknown. Nevertheless there is likely over-harvesting in the panhandle where communities are experiencing decreased catches and the impact of ghost nets needs to be noted (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
Grazing upstream along the Kavango river and generally in the panhandle is increasing, impacting the riparian/wetland habitat. In the Kavango in Namibia river banks are denuded by over-grazing resulting in erosion and loss of riparian habitat. The floodplains are mainly used for grazing as well as fishing during the late flood season. Overgrazing and the destruction of riparian vegetation have a big impact on the spawning fish communities. There is a paucity of scientific research on the impact of these land uses along the Kavango River. Influxes of people to permanent inland waterbodies typically comes with deforestation, natural resource depletion, pollution and overgrazing and requires careful management of land use practices, municipal service delivery and natural resources. Apparent rapid population growth on the upper Kavango in the Mukwe constituency -especially around Nkurenkuru- should be monitored closely and any water quality impacts mitigated timeously so that downstream regions are not impacted (NGOWP, 2023b).
Livestock, mostly cattle and increasingly goats, roam freely and are widespread along the Kavango relying on the river and its banks for water and food. Numbers have increased immensely since 2017 and the impacts on habitat and water quality are evident. In places, trampling, overgrazing and copious
excrement from livestock are expected to impact water quality with an anticipated spike at the onset of the rains. However, it should be noted that the rainy season in the Kavango region starts several months before the annual flood arrives from Angola so pollution from cattle excrement will take some
time to flush from the system. The compounding effect of rapid, concomitantly increasing human and cattle populations is resulting in swift deforestation of indigenous vegetation in the riparian zone and subsequent loss of indigenous habitat and biodiversity. Because of overgrazing, cattle and hippos attempt to feed on crops, thereby forcing people to construct fences around their plots. Indigenous trees (notably Waterberries) are primarily cut down for this purpose, making space for alien invasive plants. In places, dense stands of giant sensitive weed (Mimosa pigra) have taken over. Channel morphology and water quality is affected by cattle wading through papyrus and other aquatic vegetation (NGOWP, 2023b).
Gill netting of fish also occurs, however the extent within the WH site is unknown. Nevertheless there is likely over-harvesting in the panhandle where communities are experiencing decreased catches and the impact of ghost nets needs to be noted (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
Changes in Temperature Regimes, Changes in Precipitation & Hydrological Regime
(Reduction in hydrological flow due to climate change)
Inside site
, Throughout(>50%)
Outside site
Climate change is the immediate highest threat to the property given the potential for altered climatic parameters to shift the hydrological regimes which are so integral the sites OUV. Reduced rainfall and higher incidents of droughts leads to a reduction in inflows into the Property, with reduced annual minimum inflow and extended periods of low flows particularly a cause for concern. An increase in temperature due to global warming results in increased rate of evapotranspiration across the
Property, resulting in a reduction in total inundated area, and the duration of inundation. These negatively impact on the ecosystem dynamics which are adapted to the current hydrological flow regime (State Party of Botswana, 2024).
Research has indicated that climate change is reducing the volume of water reaching the delta by increasing evaporation from soils and rivers, and transpiration by vegetation (Konecky et al., 2016; Moses & Hambira, 2018), which has also reduced probability of high floods in the Okavango (Wolski et al., 2014). Other impacts of climate change are less certain. A drying of the catchment would result in the replacement of existing seasonally-flooded grassland with more wooded communities, but such outcomes are far from certain (Botswana, 2012). On a positive note it is likely that good rainfall will be maintained in the upper catchment in Angola (IUCN Consultation, 2020). Further developments of dams and increasing water abstraction (see below) upstream a of the property are likely to exacerbate threats from climate change.
Property, resulting in a reduction in total inundated area, and the duration of inundation. These negatively impact on the ecosystem dynamics which are adapted to the current hydrological flow regime (State Party of Botswana, 2024).
Research has indicated that climate change is reducing the volume of water reaching the delta by increasing evaporation from soils and rivers, and transpiration by vegetation (Konecky et al., 2016; Moses & Hambira, 2018), which has also reduced probability of high floods in the Okavango (Wolski et al., 2014). Other impacts of climate change are less certain. A drying of the catchment would result in the replacement of existing seasonally-flooded grassland with more wooded communities, but such outcomes are far from certain (Botswana, 2012). On a positive note it is likely that good rainfall will be maintained in the upper catchment in Angola (IUCN Consultation, 2020). Further developments of dams and increasing water abstraction (see below) upstream a of the property are likely to exacerbate threats from climate change.
Biological System Management
(Elephant overpopulation)
Inside site
, Widespread(15-50%)
Loss of biodiversity in the Okavango Delta has been associated with the increasingly high elephant population in the area. Research indicates that the socio-ecological carrying capacities of some elephant ranges in the Property have been exceeded, and this is especially evident during dry seasons when many elephants congregate around permanent water sources and a few natural pans (Buchholtz et al. 2019; Makati 2023). Evidence of elephant overpopulation in certain areas include vegetation transformation from dense woodlands to shrublands and open tree savanna, increased HEC in settlements in the buffer zone of the Property, mass mortality of elephants around water points, and high elephant carcass ratio. Reduced densities, population and canopy cover of large mature trees, (palm and Baobab trees) have been recorded within the Property (van Langevelde et al. 2017). To address the adverse effects of the elephant impact on vegetation and other wildlife species, in 2021 the State Party facilitated the development of the Management Plan of Moremi Game Reserve which is within the core zone of the Property. It was observed that elephant herbivory was high and needed to be managed. Suggested management interventions included intensifying advocacy for, and facilitating functional connectivity between landscapes in the KAZA TFCA and adjacent areas, strengthening support for CBNRM programmes in the buffer zone, strategic provisioning and seasonal pumping of
water to wildlife (e.g. pumping only during dry seasons), recognizing ecological disturbances (die-offs due to drought, diseases, predation) as a natural process, recognizing the core zone of the Property as ecological source areas of elephants and the buffer zone and adjacent drylands as important ecological sink areas – where hunting and other wildlife-based community projects will be allowed where feasible (Republic of Botswana 2021).
water to wildlife (e.g. pumping only during dry seasons), recognizing ecological disturbances (die-offs due to drought, diseases, predation) as a natural process, recognizing the core zone of the Property as ecological source areas of elephants and the buffer zone and adjacent drylands as important ecological sink areas – where hunting and other wildlife-based community projects will be allowed where feasible (Republic of Botswana 2021).
Dams & Water Management/Use
(Upstream water extraction)
Outside site
Measurements along the Cubango River between Katwitwi and the Cuito confluence — just upstream of the Namibian town of Rundu — found that up to 22% of the river’s flow was lost in that stretch during the dry season in 2021. By 2023, the figure was still a worrying 16%. In November 2022, flow measurements taken near Divundu, on the border of Botswana, showed that the entire volume of the Cubango’s contribution had effectively disappeared. All that reached Botswana had come from the Cuito River, a sand-filled, slower tributary known for its clean, steady trickle. This means that the Okavango Delta — already vulnerable to seasonal variability and climate change — is now increasingly dependent on a single tributary. And as more water is drawn from both rivers, the ecological balance of the delta could tip toward collapse. Irrigation, town water supply, and small-scale farming along the river’s course have expanded rapidly in recent years. In Namibia, the number of small river water offtakes quintupled between 2017 and 2023 — from just 25 pumps to 130. Medium-sized pipes also doubled in number. Many of these supply household gardens or small commercial farms, but some feed large irrigation schemes — such as those at Mashare and Musese — which can draw millions of litres of water during the dry season. In Angola, previously undeveloped stretches of the Cubango basin are seeing rapid transformation. Private investors have established vast commercial farms — such as the 27,500-hectare Mumba project — and use powerful pumps to divert water from the river. Angola’s state-run irrigation schemes are also being revitalised through private leases. These developments have pushed the total area of irrigated land in the basin from 6,199 hectares in 2020 to 8,025 hectares in 2024 — a 29% increase in just four years. Most of this growth is driven by private operators, who now control 66% of irrigated land (Pinnock, 2025; Mendelsohn et al. 2021). These developments pose a significant threat to the Cubango-Okavango River system, which is critical to the maintenance of the Okavango delta's hydrological regime.
The long-term integrity of the delta will depend to a large extent on wise use of water in the catchment areas of Angola and Namibia. There are a wide range of potentially devastating threats that could arise through development schemes such as dam construction, water abstraction, irrigated agricultural development and mining in the areas upstream. Especially the impacts on the total flow volume into the property and the timing and duration of different characteristics of the flow regime which act as a trigger for some ecological processes, is concerning, along with the increasing risk of pollution and eutrophication. Furthermore, differing information provided by the State Party and other stakeholders regarding existing oil exploration licenses in the buffer zone and near the site are cause for concern. The Permanent Okavango River Basin Water Commission (OKACOM) serves as a mediating role in negotiations over any such developments and should serve to achieve appropriate outcomes that can preserve the integrity of the delta. The formation of a steering committee on the transnational extension of the WH site, comprising representatives of Angola, Botswana and Namibia, is a positive step towards achieving the effective transboundary cooperation that these potential threats require in order to mitigate them.
Dams & Water Management/Use
(Upstream water extraction /impoundment)
Outside site
The most significant long-term threat to the integrity and ecological function of the delta remains beyond Botswana’s borders in the catchment areas of Angola and Namibia, where upstream use of water or construction of dams could prove devastating. In the past Namibia indicated an intention to connect its Eastern National Water Carrier to the Kavango River to ‘provide water to Windhoek and the surrounding areas’, since put on hold (Botswana, 2012). Namibia has since informed the other Permanent Okavango River Water Commission (OKACOM) Member States Angola and Botswana, about a feasibility study to examine options for water augmentation either through inter-basin transfer from the Okavango, or via ground water exploration (Botswana, 2015). It has also emerged from OKACOM that NamPower has halted its Hydro Power Project for the Popa Falls on the Okavango River in Namibia. The IUCN nomination evaluation team was informed of Chinese interest in irrigated agriculture in the river basin in southern Angola, and of plans to expand a network of protected areas in the headwaters where human populations are low due to the prolonged Angolan war (IUCN, 2013). The only concept document in the possession of OKACOM, is the “Plano de Gestão Integrada dos Recursos Hidricos da bacia do Cubango” (Botswana, 2015), although the National Geographic Okavango Project is promoting the protected area initiative. In recent years cooperation has increase between the States Parties of Botswana, Angola and Namibia on the management of natural resources, which directly feed into the long-term protection of the property's OUV (State Party of Botswana, 2020). This was formalised at a meeting in June 2019 in Maun, Botswana, hosted by the Botswana Government and UNESCO World Heritage Unit, on Transboundary cooperation for protecting the Cubango-Okavango River Basin and improving the integrity of the Okavango Delta World Heritage property. In June 2019 all 3 State parties of Angola, Namibia and Botswana agreed to cooperate and to move forwards through the Transboundary World Heritage Steering Committee formed at this pivotal meeting (UNESCO 2019). Nevertheless, there are proposed large scale development projects in the upstream of the Property, particularly construction of dams in Angola (World Bank. 2019) and maximization of irrigation opportunities along the Okavango River in Namibia (State Party of Botswana, 2024). These developments may have a negative impact on the ecosystem downstream. The proposed dams will reduce the total flow volume into the Property and alter the timing and duration of different characteristics of the flow regime which act as a trigger for some ecological processes in the Property. The maximization of irrigation will also affect inflow to the Property, particularly during the dry season. Furthermore, it increases the threat of non-point sources of pollution to the inflow. While this is the case, the State Party has engaged riparian states through the SADC Protocol on Shared Watercourses of 2001 to address water resource issues in the basin (State Party of Botswana, 2024).
Water-borne & other effluent Pollution
(Pollution and/or eutrophication of waters)
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
Outside site
The quality of the inflowing waters is just as important to the ecological integrity of the delta; so the possibility of diamond mining in the catchment areas of southern Angola with its associated threat of pollution has been identified as a potential future threat (IUCN, 2013). The National Geographic Okavango Wilderness Project (NGOWP) conducted an initial survey of the Kavango River in September 2017 and then again in September 2021, highlighting key threats and concerns for future monitoring. The river was exceptionally low (23.4 m³/s at Katwitwi) in 2021 (although this rebounded in 2023), exacerbating plastic pollution and poor water quality, with nitrate levels exceeding safe thresholds, particularly due to commercial agriculture and livestock waste runoff. While wildlife abundance remained stable since 2017, human and livestock populations along the riverbank have surged—a three-fold increase in people and a five-fold increase in cattle—leading to rapid deforestation, overgrazing, and the spread of invasive plant species. Water abstractions for agriculture have more than doubled, with large irrigation schemes under construction, posing a growing threat to the river’s ecosystem. Unsustainable fishing practices, including the use of fine-meshed nets and drag nets, risk the collapse of fish stocks unless well-policed no-fishing zones are established. Given these pressures, future monitoring should focus on water quality, land-use changes, deforestation rates, water abstraction levels, and fisheries management, with urgent intervention needed to preserve the river’s ecosystem services (National Geographic Okavango Wilderness Project, 2021).There is also the possibility of a major Chinese-backed irrigated agricultural scheme in southern Angola which would result in water use and also lead to eutrophication and/or pollution with artificial fertilizers and pesticides (IUCN, 2013). This has neither been confirmed by Angola nor brought to the attention of Member States concerned (SOC 2016). Base metal mining at sites on the Okavango River system in Namibia may pose a serious threat to sensitive riverine environment along the Okavango River and influence water quality. Sites are being explored for potential mining in the Kavango East area of Namibia (Enviro Dynamics 2014). Concerns were raised in October 2015 by the Botswana Department of Water Affairs regarding oil contamination in the Okavango Delta panhandle area. Analysis showed that hydrocarbon content in the water being above maximum allowable limit of 5 mg/L. Probable sources boats, ferries, house boats and boat harbours (Kurugundla 2015). Monitoring of water quality in the site showed multiple instances of non-compliance to national water quality standards with none out of ten facilities tested in 2019/2020 meeting required standards due to the quality of the effluent, poor infrastructure and the use of 'soak away' (State Party of Botswana, 2020). The WH Committee has also expressed concerns about the granting of oil exploration licenses in environmentally sensitive areas within the Okavango river basin, which could result in additional potential impact due to spills or pollution (UNESCO, 2020). Although, the SP has stated that the current exploration licence issued to Reconnaissance Energy Botswana lies beyond the buffer and core zones and is subject to extensive EIA (State Party of Botswana, 2022), concerns have been raised that another license in the buffer zone remains active (UNESCO, 2023).
Mining & Quarrying
(Mining)
Outside site
There is no active prospecting, exploration or mining of any mineral taking place currently within the buffer or core zones of the Property. However, there is one licence for prospecting of metals that overlaps into the buffer zone of the property (State Party of Botswana, 2024). At the time of inscription, the State Party committed not renew the licences that overlapped with property, and has since cancelled all petroleum and metals prospecting licences in the buffer zone (State Party of Botswana, 2018; UNESCO, 2018). There is however a possibility that mining could be undertaken in the areas adjacent to the buffer zone, or areas of the catchment in Angola and/or Namibia. Exploration activities adjacent to the buffer zone (for petroleum and metals) are being monitored by the State Party, but no indication has been given that such activities will explicitly assess potential impacts on the property’s OUV in their EIAs if there is a potential to impact on the property. ReconAfrica's oil exploration in Namibia's Kavango Basin poses significant threats to the Okavango Delta World Heritage site. The potential use of hydraulic fracturing (fracking) raises concerns about groundwater contamination, which could adversely affect the delta's delicate ecosystem. Additionally, fracking requires substantial water volumes, and extracting this water from the Kavango River may reduce the flow into the Okavango Delta, impacting its biodiversity and water availability. Environmentalists and local communities have expressed apprehension over these risks, emphasizing the need for thorough environmental assessments and sustainable water management practices (Mongabay 2020; National Geographic 2023).
Involvement of stakeholders and rightsholders, including indigenous peoples and local communities, in decision-making processes
While local communities participate in conservation initiatives, their involvement in decision-making has remained limited, particularly regarding resource access and tourism revenue-sharing (UNDP, 2020). Ensuring their rightful access to land and participation in conservation and tourism remains a challenge, however various efforts are ongoing. Communities benefit from the property through the Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) programme which has been implemented in the country for the last 30 years. The CBNRM Policy of 2007 promotes community beneficiation from natural resources and encourage the conservation of such resources. The revised Okavango Delta Management Plan (ODMP) of 2021-2028 aims to address user access rights, cultural rights, and access to opportunities to participate in the tourism sector, in keeping with the property’s Outstanding Universal Value (MENRCT, 2021). One of the important structures in the district involved in the management of the Okavango Delta World Heritage Property is the Okavango Delta Wetland Management Committee (OWMC), which is made up of representatives from communities (mostly from Community Trusts), the private sector (mostly Tourism operators), several Non-Governmental Organizations, District leadership, Local and Central Government representatives. The Committee is Chaired by Tawana Land Board, whilst the Secretariat is Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA), assisted by the Department of National Museum and Monuments (DNMM). The composition of the Committee is based on the notion of promoting ownership and active participation of all stakeholders with interest in the management of the Property (State Party of Botswana, 2024). In addition to the existing CBNRM programme in the Okavango, the Community Management of Protected Areas Conservation (COMPACT) is another initiative that involves Okavango Delta Panhandle communities in the management of the property. COMPACT undertakes projects which accommodate traditional resource use for livelihoods, user access rights, cultural rights, and access to opportunities to participate in the tourism sector, while keeping up with the Property’s Outstanding Universal Value. Communities in the Property have Trusts to benefit from the CBNRM program. The implementation of the COMPACT initiative will enhance their feasibility and consequently community participation and benefit. So far, there are 14 CBO Trusts in the Panhandle. Nevertheless, there is evidence that communities in the Delta are unhappy about persistent experiences of constrained access and limited influence in matters related to water governance (Datla et al. 2023).
Legal framework
Less than 25% of the area is designated as Game Reserve, through which it is protected against all forms of consumptive use. This area (the Moremi Game Reserve, 4,610 km2) lies at the centre of the ‘core area’ and its status was deemed likely to be upgraded to National Park designation at the time of inscription (IUCN, 2013), however this has never occurred. The Game Reserve is surrounded by 18 Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs) and 1 Controlled Hunting Area, which make up three quarters of the world heritage property. WMAs are areas of tribal land held in trust for communities by a government agency, the Tawana Land Board (TLB). The TLB leases the land to commercial tourism operators and/or community trusts, and supervises the activities of lease-holders. The legislation governing WMAs and CHAs allows settlement, cultivation, livestock (outside of the Okavango Delta's Livestock-free Zone) and other activities that would not normally be expected within a ‘protected area’, so it is up to the TLB to determine lease terms, including any restrictions that it might impose for the benefit of wildlife. In practice, the TLB exercises its powers in a manner that ensures that ‘commercial’ WMAs (12 of the 18 WMAs making up the core area of the WHS) are used exclusively for high-end tourism operations where no settlement, cultivation or livestock is permitted, while ‘community’ WMAs are less restrictive and commonly include areas for cultivation and livestock (most associated settlements have been excluded from the core zone and are located in the buffer zone, except as noted above). Whilst positive changes have been made by the State Party to remove extractives licences from within the property and its buffer zone, the possible exploration for petroleum and metal immediately adjacent to the buffer zone has the potential to impact on the OUV. An extension the legal framework at the basin scale to ensure any extractives project beyond the buffer zone to ensure an assessment of impacts on the OUV would help strengthen the protection of the property.
Governance arrangements
The Okavango Delta Management Plan (ODMP) 2021-2028 is the main instrument guiding the management of the Okavango Delta World Heritage Property. The Permanent Secretary in the Ministry of Environment &Tourism (MET) is the custodian of the Okavango Delta World Heritage Property and is responsible for the implementation of the ODMP in collaboration with sister ministries of Land & Agriculture, Water and Human Settlement, Local Government & Traditional Affairs, and Minerals & Energy. Specific Departments at MET that are responsible for the implementation of the ODMP include: Department of National Museum and Monuments, Department of Tourism, Department of Wildlife and National Parks, Department of Environmental Protection, Department of Forestry and Range Resources (DFRR) and Department of Meteorological Services (DMS) (State Party of Botswana, 2024).
Governance structures involve multiple stakeholders, including these Government Departments, Parastatals, Community Based Organisations, Non Governmental Organizations, and the private sector. However, coordination challenges affect transboundary conservation and water management (Matswiri, 2023) and the harmonization of processes and legal instruments is needed. Increased cooperation between Botswana, Angola, and Namibia through the Permanent Okavango River Basin Water Commission (OKACOM) is welcomed. This includes finalized guidelines on the implementation of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) Protocol on shared watercourses. The draft Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) for the Cubango-Okavango River Basin (CORB) was completed in 2022 and is being updated in 2025 and will support decision-making amidst development pressure.
Overall, although the legal basis for protection is adequate for Moremi Game Reserve (4,610 km2 or 23% of the core area) it is relatively weak elsewhere, with much of the area (15,625 km2) designated as ‘Wildlife Management’ and ‘Controlled Hunting’ Areas. This renders institutional arrangements between management regimes within the site complex and variable according to the designation of particular ‘blocks.
Governance structures involve multiple stakeholders, including these Government Departments, Parastatals, Community Based Organisations, Non Governmental Organizations, and the private sector. However, coordination challenges affect transboundary conservation and water management (Matswiri, 2023) and the harmonization of processes and legal instruments is needed. Increased cooperation between Botswana, Angola, and Namibia through the Permanent Okavango River Basin Water Commission (OKACOM) is welcomed. This includes finalized guidelines on the implementation of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) Protocol on shared watercourses. The draft Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) for the Cubango-Okavango River Basin (CORB) was completed in 2022 and is being updated in 2025 and will support decision-making amidst development pressure.
Overall, although the legal basis for protection is adequate for Moremi Game Reserve (4,610 km2 or 23% of the core area) it is relatively weak elsewhere, with much of the area (15,625 km2) designated as ‘Wildlife Management’ and ‘Controlled Hunting’ Areas. This renders institutional arrangements between management regimes within the site complex and variable according to the designation of particular ‘blocks.
Integration into local, regional and national planning systems (including sea/landscape connectivity)
The site is integrated into regional conservation frameworks, but land-use planning inconsistencies in buffer zones remain a concern (RAMSAR, 2021).
The WH Committee has requested that Botswana strengthen transboundary cooperation including through the Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area (KAZA TFCA) (UNESCO, 2023). Various meetings between the neighbouring State Parties have been held between 2021-2024. To address poaching and illegal wildlife trafficking at a regional context, the State Party and other regional SADC member states have developed a Law Enforcement and Anti-Poaching (LEAP) Strategy (2022-2032), which was published in 2024 (SADC, 2024). The Botswana National Spatial Plan (NSP), which was approved in 2019, delineated and zoned a continuum of ecological and cultural ecosystems from northern to western parts of the country into a Green Preserve zone. The Green Preserve links the KAZA and protected areas in the southern parts of the country such as the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park. It is Africa’s largest continuously protected wildlife area and one of the most diverse. It includes the Okavango Delta, Makgadikgadi Nxai Pans, Central Kgalagadi Game Reserve and the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park. Developments (including those in the Property) will be subject to spatial planning principles and standards espoused in the NSP and ODMP. The Department of Environmental Protection ensures that where applicable, SEAs, EIAs and EMPs precede developmental initiatives. The NSP also serves as a basis to develop integrated land use plans and align these with the ODMP (State Party of Botswana, 2024).
The WH Committee has requested that Botswana strengthen transboundary cooperation including through the Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area (KAZA TFCA) (UNESCO, 2023). Various meetings between the neighbouring State Parties have been held between 2021-2024. To address poaching and illegal wildlife trafficking at a regional context, the State Party and other regional SADC member states have developed a Law Enforcement and Anti-Poaching (LEAP) Strategy (2022-2032), which was published in 2024 (SADC, 2024). The Botswana National Spatial Plan (NSP), which was approved in 2019, delineated and zoned a continuum of ecological and cultural ecosystems from northern to western parts of the country into a Green Preserve zone. The Green Preserve links the KAZA and protected areas in the southern parts of the country such as the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park. It is Africa’s largest continuously protected wildlife area and one of the most diverse. It includes the Okavango Delta, Makgadikgadi Nxai Pans, Central Kgalagadi Game Reserve and the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park. Developments (including those in the Property) will be subject to spatial planning principles and standards espoused in the NSP and ODMP. The Department of Environmental Protection ensures that where applicable, SEAs, EIAs and EMPs precede developmental initiatives. The NSP also serves as a basis to develop integrated land use plans and align these with the ODMP (State Party of Botswana, 2024).
Boundaries
The boundaries are well-defined and effectively protect core conservation areas, minimizing encroachment risks (UNESCO, 2018), however due to the fact that climate change and water extraction are risks beyond the control of the site's management authority, the collaboration with neighbouring countries and potential extension of the site boundaries to encompass the shared Cubango-Okavango River Basin (CORB) with Namibia and Angola is critical for the future protection of the OUV.
There are ongoing discussions between Botswana, Namibia, and Angola on the possibility of extending the Okavango World Heritage Property into Namibia and Angola. This comes after an Independent Feasibility Study commissioned by the UNESCO World Heritage Centre to extend the Okavango World Heritage Site into Angola and Namibia. The proposed extension is expected to cover the Cubango-Okavango River Basin (CORB) shared by Angola, Botswana, and Namibia. There have been several engagements held for the three countries of which the latest was held on November 2022 (State Party of Botswana, 2024).
There are ongoing discussions between Botswana, Namibia, and Angola on the possibility of extending the Okavango World Heritage Property into Namibia and Angola. This comes after an Independent Feasibility Study commissioned by the UNESCO World Heritage Centre to extend the Okavango World Heritage Site into Angola and Namibia. The proposed extension is expected to cover the Cubango-Okavango River Basin (CORB) shared by Angola, Botswana, and Namibia. There have been several engagements held for the three countries of which the latest was held on November 2022 (State Party of Botswana, 2024).
Overlapping international designations
The site benefits from multiple international conservation designations, being both a Ramsar site and a World Heritage Site, which enhance protection and cross-border collaboration (RAMSAR, 2021). The revision of the ODMP was motivated by the 2014 inscription as a World Heritage Site, requiring alignment with both the Ramsar and World Heritage Conventions.
Implementation of World Heritage Committee decisions and recommendations
Some recommendations, such as transboundary water governance improvements, remain partially implemented (UNESCO, 2023), although significant progress has been made. Most notable is the finalisation of the management plan, the improvements in anti-poaching efforts, and strengthened transboundary collaboration. However, the key concern stemming from the pressure for large-scale development projects related to hydropower, oil and gas exploration in the buffer zone and environmentally sensitive upstream areas, remains high (UNESCO, 2023).
Following a UNESCO World Heritage and Government of Botswana meeting in 2019 with State Parties from Angola and Namibia efforts towards a Transboundary Okavango World Heritage Site were formalised and a Steering Committee formed. This was followed by a Feasibility Study completed in 2023. Additionally, the World Heritage Committee’s decision to "expand and strengthen programs accommodating traditional resource use for livelihoods, user access rights, cultural rights, and opportunities to participate in the tourism sector, in alignment with the property's Outstanding Universal Value (OUV)" has yet to be fully applied. Indigenous Peoples continue to face difficulties in being allocated their ancestral lands within the property. Ensuring their rightful access to land and participation in conservation and tourism remains a challenge.
Following a UNESCO World Heritage and Government of Botswana meeting in 2019 with State Parties from Angola and Namibia efforts towards a Transboundary Okavango World Heritage Site were formalised and a Steering Committee formed. This was followed by a Feasibility Study completed in 2023. Additionally, the World Heritage Committee’s decision to "expand and strengthen programs accommodating traditional resource use for livelihoods, user access rights, cultural rights, and opportunities to participate in the tourism sector, in alignment with the property's Outstanding Universal Value (OUV)" has yet to be fully applied. Indigenous Peoples continue to face difficulties in being allocated their ancestral lands within the property. Ensuring their rightful access to land and participation in conservation and tourism remains a challenge.
Climate action
The increasingly visible impacts of climate change result in environmental changes and reduced hydrological flow. These changes could be further exacerbated by developments in the Cubango-Okavango River Basin (CORB). The 2014 ODMP mid-term review highlighted climate change as a key overlooked issue. The revised ODMP aims at devising strategies for protecting the delta and its inhabitants, taking climate change adaptation into consideration. However, targeted adaptation measures are insufficient (Moses & Hambira, 2018). Botswana needs to pass the Climate Change Response Policy to reduce the impacts of climate change on the Okavango Delta World Heritage Site. Monitoring changes in climatic conditions is a continuous process. Research shows a consistent signal for future temperature increases in the Okavango River Basin, likely to experience change. Higher temperatures will increase evaporation.
Climate change related matters in the State Party are overseen by the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (MET), through the Department of Meteorological Services (DMS) which is the national focal point for climate change issues. The State Party formulated the National Climate Change Policy (2021) which guides the development and implementation of appropriate adaptation strategies to lower the vulnerability of Batswana and various sectors of the economy to the impacts of climate change to develop action plans and strategies for climate change mitigation. The actual implementation of the policy is through sector mandated ministries including the Ministry of Minerals and Energy, Ministry of Transport and Infrastructure and Ministry of Lands and Agriculture. The State Party established the National Climate Change Committee (NCCC), with membership consisting of representatives from government line ministries, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and academia with technical expertise on climate change that could facilitate credible advice to inform government decisions. It is primarily tasked with advising the government on matters relating to national responsibilities, with respect to climate change, international obligations and implementation of response measures. Furthermore, climate change issues are cascaded to local levels through other existing structures such as District Development Committees which offer opportunities for climate change to be considered during districts’ development planning (State Party of Botswana, 2024). To help communities adapt to the impacts of climate change, several interventions implemented at the community level have been implemented. The National Environment Fund (NEF) administered by the Ministry through DEP and CTF has funded some projects to address issues of climate change. OKACOM has sponsored climate smart interventions among communities in the Property, including provision of water for irrigation through shallow wells. However, these dried out when the groundwater levels dropped (State Party of Botswana, 2024).
Climate change related matters in the State Party are overseen by the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (MET), through the Department of Meteorological Services (DMS) which is the national focal point for climate change issues. The State Party formulated the National Climate Change Policy (2021) which guides the development and implementation of appropriate adaptation strategies to lower the vulnerability of Batswana and various sectors of the economy to the impacts of climate change to develop action plans and strategies for climate change mitigation. The actual implementation of the policy is through sector mandated ministries including the Ministry of Minerals and Energy, Ministry of Transport and Infrastructure and Ministry of Lands and Agriculture. The State Party established the National Climate Change Committee (NCCC), with membership consisting of representatives from government line ministries, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and academia with technical expertise on climate change that could facilitate credible advice to inform government decisions. It is primarily tasked with advising the government on matters relating to national responsibilities, with respect to climate change, international obligations and implementation of response measures. Furthermore, climate change issues are cascaded to local levels through other existing structures such as District Development Committees which offer opportunities for climate change to be considered during districts’ development planning (State Party of Botswana, 2024). To help communities adapt to the impacts of climate change, several interventions implemented at the community level have been implemented. The National Environment Fund (NEF) administered by the Ministry through DEP and CTF has funded some projects to address issues of climate change. OKACOM has sponsored climate smart interventions among communities in the Property, including provision of water for irrigation through shallow wells. However, these dried out when the groundwater levels dropped (State Party of Botswana, 2024).
Management plan and overall management system
The revised Okavango Delta Management Plan (ODMP) for 2021-2028 has been finalized. This second revision caters to developments since the initial 2008 plan, including the World Heritage Site listing and emerging threats like mining, upstream developments, and increased human-wildlife conflicts. The plan aims to be an integrated framework for the sustainable use, conservation, and management of the Okavango Delta MIDA landscape. The Moremi Game Reserve Management Plan and Chobe National Park Management Plans drafted in 2021 still need to be officially approved and implemented. Periodic updates of the ODMP are required to address emerging threats like invasive species. Other initiatives like the Protocol on Shared Watercourses in the Southern African Development Community (SADC) and the Permanent Okavango River Basin Water Commission (OKACOM) are critical to ensure the sustainable management of the Okavango River Basin including water resources. However, more needs to be done to fully integrate Indigenous Peoples, not just in the management of the property but also in its governance. Indigenous communities, such as the //Anikhwe and Bugakhwe, have deep ecological knowledge and a cultural connection to the Okavango Delta. The State Party should continue to recognize and incorporate this into decision-making structures. Strengthening Indigenous Peoples' role in governance would ensure a more inclusive and effective conservation approach, respecting their rights and fostering sustainable management practices that align with traditional ecological knowledge.
Law enforcement
Anti-poaching efforts are in place, but bushmeat poaching, elephant and lion poaching, vulture killings and illegal fishing remains a persistent concern, requiring improved surveillance. Significant efforts have been undertaken in terms of the budget allocation and institutional arrangements at the BDF Anti-Poaching Unit and the DWNP Anti-Poaching Unit to combat poaching in the Property. In addition, the State Party has developed a National Anti-Poaching Strategy (NAPS) of 2024 (State Party of Botswana, 2024). The NAPS main objectives are to: improve the security of the country’s borders and therefore reducing cross-border wildlife crime-related activities; coordinate the enforcement of legislation to conserve wildlife resources; improve national and international interagency cooperation to combat wildlife crime; enhance the capacity of law enforcement agencies to execute their mandate; and increase community awareness of and involvement in combating wildlife crime. The provisioning and use of high-tech equipment (drones, night vision cameras, micro-chip tracking of rhinos) and involvement of local communities in anti-poaching have helped to improve the efficiency of anti-poaching efforts in the Property. The Department of Wildlife and National Parks through its Anti-Poaching Unit undertakes monthly anti-poaching patrols within the Property and collaborates with the other law enforcement agencies such as the Botswana Defence Force, Botswana Police, and the local communities through a collaborative law enforcement strategy. Additionally, technology like drones are increasingly being utilised for monitoring of illegal incursions (State Party of Botswana, 2024). Nevertheless, the recent reports of lion poaching are of concern (LionAid, 2025).
Sustainable finance
In response to the WH Committee's concerns regarding sustainable finance, the expenditure for the Department of Wildlife and National Parks relating to implementation of the management plan increased from USD 12,663,490 in 2022 to USD 15,187,386 in 2023 and USD 17,223,825 in 2024. The Department of Museum and Monuments, which is the leading department overseeing the management and protection of the Property also spent USD 1,625,007 in 2022, USD 1,374,112.55 in 2023 and USD 1,520,254) in 2024 for the management of the Property and other monuments. Other agencies also contributed to this effort, for example, the Conservation Trust Fund (CTF) administered by MET through DWNP donated vehicles to many Communities Based Natural Resources Management (CBNRM) communities in the buffer zone to implement CBNRM projects and ODMP Action Plans (State Party of Botswana, 2024). Conservation funding is reliant on government and donor support, and financial sustainability remains a challenge overall (UNDP, 2020).
Staff capacity, training and development
Staff are well-trained, but there are gaps in capacity development for ecological monitoring and climate resilience. Support for development of centralized data storage, curation and analysis in all Institutions is needed. The laboratories at the Okavango Research Institute (ORI) need to be refurbished, and additional staff hired. Nevertheless, there have been improvements in human capacity for management of the site in recent years. The Department of National Museum and Monuments (DNMM) has increased its personnel in Maun to coordinate the implementation of the Okavango Delta Management Plan. In 2014 DNMM had only three permanent professional officers and 1 vehicle, but in 2024 there was a total of six permanent professional officers, 3 temporary officers and 7 vehicles to use to manage the Property. Staff complement for DWNP responsible for the implementation of the ODMP currently stands at 218 officers from 343 officers in 2024 as compared to 2014 at listing when figures were lower. The reduction in the number of officers in DWNP is not believed to have affected the efficient management of the Property as the BDF Anti-Poaching Unit filled up the gap and used efficient and advanced technologies in their anti-poaching efforts (State Party of Botswana, 2024).
Education and interpretation programmes
Environmental education programs are active, but expansion is needed to reach more local communities and schools (Botswana Wildlife Training Institute, 2024). Fostering community stewardship and appreciation of the native vegetation of Ngamiland through community involvement in research and monitoring and communication and interpretation programs and increasing the uptake of conservation messages need to be key priorities.
Tourism and visitation management
The low-volume tourism model is effective, but issues such as illegal road creation require stricter controls in places (State Party of Botswana, 2020). All new developments in the delta must be preceded by commissioning separate Environmental Impact Assessments to complement the ODMP. In mitigating against water contamination and pollution in tourism facilities, the State Party requires all tourism facilities and associated developments in the Property to undertake an Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA) prior to commencement. The Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) reviews all the EIA reports and gives permission for projects to proceed (State Party of Botswana, 2024). The State Party has several policies and development plans that control the negative impacts of tourism development. These are: the Okavango Delta Management Plan (ODMP) 2021-2028, The Tourism Policy of 2021, The Wildlife Conservation Policy of 2013, The Community Based Natural
Resource Management Policy of 2007, National Ecotourism Strategy of 2002, the Ngamiland Land Use Plan and National Tourism Master Plan and Action Plan (2022-2032). In addition to the legislative framework to manage tourism development in the Property, the State Party promotes a sustainable tourism development approach where tourism operators are encouraged to partake in the voluntary Botswana Ecotourism Certification System (State Party of Botswana, 2024).
Assessment (EIA) prior to commencement. The Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) reviews all the EIA reports and gives permission for projects to proceed (State Party of Botswana, 2024). The State Party has several policies and development plans that control the negative impacts of tourism development. These are: the Okavango Delta Management Plan (ODMP) 2021-2028, The Tourism Policy of 2021, The Wildlife Conservation Policy of 2013, The Community Based Natural
Resource Management Policy of 2007, National Ecotourism Strategy of 2002, the Ngamiland Land Use Plan and National Tourism Master Plan and Action Plan (2022-2032). In addition to the legislative framework to manage tourism development in the Property, the State Party promotes a sustainable tourism development approach where tourism operators are encouraged to partake in the voluntary Botswana Ecotourism Certification System (State Party of Botswana, 2024).
Sustainable use
Resource use is well-regulated, with minimal ecological impact from hunting, legal fishing, reed harvesting, and traditional practices. Indigenous communities living within the Okavango Delta have been allocated Controlled Hunting Areas (CHAs) to manage for their own benefit through tourism development, especially San communities. Indigenous Peoples of Mababe through their CBO known as Mababe Zokotsama Development Trust (MZDT) were allocated CHA known as NG/41 which they use of trophy hunting tourism. MZDT generates income annually from tourism development. In terms of employment, MZDT has a total of 86 people permanently employed through the CBO as at July 2023. In addition, they have community-based tourism activities in and around Mababe village which include camping sites and Mogotlho Lodge (a 5-star lodge). Indigenous Peoples of Khwai through their CBO known as Khwai Development Trust (KDT) have also been allocated CHAs NG/18 and NG/19 which are involved in photographic tourism. KDT also generates a significant amount of revenue from its tourism activities. In addition, they have three campsites which provide accommodation to camping tourists. In terms of employment a total of 26 people from Khwai Village are permanently employed through the KDT and 79 through their Joint Venture Partnerships (JVPs). Indigenous Peoples of Gudigwa Village are part of the Okavango Community Trust (OCT) and have been allocated NG/22 and NG/23 where they have sub-leased these concession areas to tourism investors. In the last three years, OCT has generated a significant amount of money through photographic tourism and created employment opportunities for its residents (State Party of Botswana, 2024). Despite this progress, there are still land allocations that predate the listing of the property that need to be addressed, particularly in the panhandle area, where Indigenous communities continue to face challenges in securing rightful access to their ancestral lands.
A key challenge is addressing overgrazing and fishing along the Kavango River upstream from the World Heritage property, which has negative impacts on water quality, fish populations and the spread of invasive alien species (NGOWP, 2023b). This requires enhanced transnational measures.
A key challenge is addressing overgrazing and fishing along the Kavango River upstream from the World Heritage property, which has negative impacts on water quality, fish populations and the spread of invasive alien species (NGOWP, 2023b). This requires enhanced transnational measures.
Monitoring
The State Party is engaged in wildlife monitoring on the property with the collaboration of stakeholders such as: the private sector, research institutes and NGOs (e.g. Okavango Research Institute, Eco-Exists Botswana, Round River Conservation Studies, WildCru, NGOWP), local communities through the Management Oriented Monitoring System (MOMS) programme and government. For example, the DWNP in coordination with wildlife authorities in Angola, Namibia, Zambia, and Zimbabwe (KAZA states) undertook a joint aerial survey during the period August to November 2022. In Botswana, the aerial survey covered the entire Okavango Delta and counted all live large-bodied herbivores as well as elephant carcasses. The State Party conducts aerial surveys of wildlife populations every 2 to 3 years (State Party of Botswana, 2024). Drones are increasingly used for monitoring purposes.
While monitoring programs exist, there are significant data gaps. Data is variable, subject to different survey techniques and uncoordinated surveys undertaken by different institutions all contribute to an unclear picture of the Okavango Delta’s wildlife. Authorities have initiated efforts to establish a comprehensive and integrated wildlife monitoring system that can accurately track population size and trends for the entire property, however ongoing work is needed to realize this. There are also data gaps in water quality assessments. There is a need to increase and improve the monitoring mechanism on key factors that affect the smooth functioning of the Okavango Delta as an ecosystem. The implementation of standard protocols for wildlife monitoring in the Okavango Delta data will assist in more accurately determining species population trends and the operationalization of an Online Databases for Wildlife Monitoring, Aquatic Species, Alien Invasive Species, Vegetation/ Habitat Quality data will be further helpful.
While monitoring programs exist, there are significant data gaps. Data is variable, subject to different survey techniques and uncoordinated surveys undertaken by different institutions all contribute to an unclear picture of the Okavango Delta’s wildlife. Authorities have initiated efforts to establish a comprehensive and integrated wildlife monitoring system that can accurately track population size and trends for the entire property, however ongoing work is needed to realize this. There are also data gaps in water quality assessments. There is a need to increase and improve the monitoring mechanism on key factors that affect the smooth functioning of the Okavango Delta as an ecosystem. The implementation of standard protocols for wildlife monitoring in the Okavango Delta data will assist in more accurately determining species population trends and the operationalization of an Online Databases for Wildlife Monitoring, Aquatic Species, Alien Invasive Species, Vegetation/ Habitat Quality data will be further helpful.
Research
The Okavango Research Institute conducts extensive studies, but additional funding and international partnerships would enhance long-term research (Matswiri 2017). There is a need for increased co-ordinated Scientific research directed towards improved understanding of the Outstanding Universal values of the Okavango delta World Heritage property.
Effectiveness of management system and governance in addressing threats outside the site
Upstream water abstraction and potential Mining developments in Angola and Namibia remains a major potential threat, requiring stronger regulatory mechanisms. Increased cooperation between Botswana, Angola, and Namibia through the Permanent Okavango River Basin Water Commission (OKACOM) is welcomed. This includes finalized guidelines on the implementation of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) Protocol on shared watercourses. The draft Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) for the Cubango-Okavango River Basin (CORB) was completed in 2022 and is being updated in 2025 and will support decision-making amidst development pressure. However, poaching of migratory wildlife when animals move out of the area remains a concern.
Effectiveness of management system and governance in addressing threats inside the site
Management efforts have focused on controlling invasive species but illegal resource extraction and anthropogenic fires still requires stricter enforcement (State Party of Botswana, 2020). Nevertheless, efforts to work with local communities are ongoing and enhance the engagement of local communities in governance, management and monitoring activities, while ensuring shared benefits. In addition, most communities have concession areas where they undertake tourism activities which provide employment opportunities, income generation and tourism entrepreneurship skills.
The site is facing an increasing number and intensity of threats, many of which originate beyond the site boundaries and require strong transnational cooperation. The legal basis for protection is adequate for Moremi Game Reserve (4,610 km2 or 23% of the core area) but relatively weak elsewhere, with much of the area (15,625 km2) designated as ‘Wildlife Management’ and ‘Controlled Hunting’ Areas. This renders institutional arrangements between management regimes within the site complex and variable according to the designation of particular ‘blocks’. The Okavango Delta Management Plan (ODMP) was revised and covers the period 2021-2028, which has strengthened management overall and improved coherence for the wider area. However, emerging challenges and threats such as mining activities, upstream and downstream developments, increasing land-use pressures, and escalating human-wildlife conflicts, pose risks to the socio-ecological integrity of the area and require strong collaboration between the riparian states of Angola, Botswana and Namibia. Increased cooperation between these states through the Permanent Okavango River Basin Water Commission (OKACOM) is welcomed. This includes finalized guidelines on the implementation of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) Protocol on shared watercourses. The draft Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) for the Cubango-Okavango River Basin (CORB) was completed in 2022 and is being updated in 2025 and will support decision-making amidst development pressure. The potential extension of the site boundaries to encompass the shared Cubango-Okavango River Basin (CORB) with Namibia and Angola is critical for the future protection of the OUV. To address poaching and illegal wildlife trafficking at a regional context, the State Party and other regional SADC member states have developed a Law Enforcement and Anti-Poaching (LEAP) Strategy (2022-2032), which was published in 2024. Although at the site level anti-poaching efforts are in place and showing positive results, bushmeat poaching, elephant and lion poaching and illegal fishing remains a concern, requiring improved surveillance and consistent monitoring. The 2014 ODMP mid-term review highlighted climate change as a key overlooked issue. The revised ODMP aims at devising strategies for protecting the delta and its inhabitants, taking climate change adaptation into consideration, however at the site level further action is needed. Targeted adaptation measures are insufficient and Botswana needs to pass the Climate Change Response Policy to reduce the impacts of climate change on the Okavango Delta World Heritage Site. The State Party formulated the National Climate Change Policy (2021) and established the National Climate Change Committee (NCCC), with membership consisting of representatives from government line ministries, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and academia with technical expertise on Climate Change that could facilitate credible advice to inform government decisions. Furthermore, climate change issues are cascaded to local levels through other existing structures such as District Development Committees which offer opportunities for climate change to be considered during districts’ development planning. To help communities adapt to the impacts of climate change, several interventions implemented at the community level have been implemented. The National Environment Fund (NEF) administered by the Ministry through DEP and CTF has funded some projects to address issues of climate change. OKACOM has sponsored climate smart interventions among communities in the Property, including provision of water for irrigation through shallow wells. However, these dried out when the groundwater levels dropped. While local communities participate in conservation initiatives, their involvement in decision-making has thus far remained limited, particularly regarding resource access and tourism revenue-sharing. Communities benefit from the Property through the CBNRM programme which has been implemented in the country for the last 30 years. The revised Okavango Delta Management Plan (ODMP) of 2021-2028 aims to address user access rights, cultural rights, and access to opportunities to participate in the tourism sector, in keeping with the property’s Outstanding Universal Value. One of the important structures in the district involved in the management of the Okavango Delta World Heritage Property is the Okavango Delta Wetland Management Committee (OWMC), which is made up of representatives from communities (mostly from Community Trusts), the private Sector (mostly Tourism operators), several Non-Governmental Organizations, District leadership, Local and Central Government representatives. However, currently Indigenous Peoples and local communities are still voicing concerns that they are being constrained access and limited influence in matters related to the governance of the property.
Africa’s most extensive inland delta without an outlet to the sea, lying within a desert environment
Good
Trend
Deteriorating
The delta’s physical characteristics are determined by the underlying geology and landforms, being the product of a process of faulting which has blocked the flow of the Okavango River and forced it to spread out over the desert sands of the Kalahari Basin (Mendelsohn,et al, 2010). Although currently still in good condition, the increasing impacts of climate change and the potential upstream developments are of concern for the hydrological regime of the system. Climate change is projected to significantly affect inflow into the Okavango Delta by reducing precipitation, while simultaneously enhancing evapo-transpiration in the basin (State Party of Botswana, 2024; Gondwe et al. 2021). There are also potential threats relating to the management of water in the greater Cubango-Okavango catchment, which is beyond the direct influence of the management authority. However, enhanced efforts to strengthen the trilateral cooperation and discussions to extend the site boundaries to encompass the greater Cubango-Okavango catchment are positive developments, albeit in further need of strengthening.
Annual cycle of flooding
Good
Trend
Stable
The annual cycle of flooding is determined by seasonal rainfall patterns in the Angolan highland catchment areas as well as the physical geography of the Kalahari Basin which slows the flow of water to such an extent that flooding occurs during the dry season. This would be affected by any upstream water abstraction, or the construction of dams in the catchment areas, but there is no immediate prospect of any such development (IUCN, 2013) and encouraging progress has been made to integrate management of the upstream resources through the structures of OKACOM (OKACOM, 2020, State Party of Botswana, 2024). The annual cycle of flooding in the delta remains in good condition and is likely to remain so for the foreseeable future under current scenarios. Despite the various perturbations that have been experienced in the system, the Delta has always been able to absorb them and retain its character at the general ecosystem level. These notwithstanding, there have been some changes at the local scale where the Delta has shifted regimes and entered into altered states as a consequence of either channel or lagoon failure (Mosepele and Mosepele, 2021), reconfirming the importance of effective and adaptive management and regular monitoring.
An outstanding example of the complexity, inter-dependence and interplay of climatic, geo-morphological, hydrological, and biological processes
Low Concern
Trend
Stable
The ongoing ecological processes of this pristine wetland system are likely to be sustained as long as there are no significant alterations in the annual flood cycle (IUCN, 2013). Indeed, the property continues to exemplify a number of ecological processes related to flood inundation, channelization, nutrient cycling.
The water quality parameters (i.e., water temperature, total dissolved ions (TDI), pH, dissolved oxygen (DO) and turbidity) from the Panhandle, and the eastern and western transects monitored by the NGOWP (2023) were well below the maximum contamination levels (MCL), signifying healthy river water quality status. However, the measured parameters exhibited notable spatial and temporal variations.
The associated biological processes also remain in good condition, however with some concerns relating to the invasive species, particularly Salvinia molesta (State Party of Botswana, 2020), and the veterinary cordon fences which require rationalisation and corresponding management action given their potential limiting effect on migratory processes (UNESCO, 2018, World Heritage Committee, 2018, AHEAD 2019).
The water quality parameters (i.e., water temperature, total dissolved ions (TDI), pH, dissolved oxygen (DO) and turbidity) from the Panhandle, and the eastern and western transects monitored by the NGOWP (2023) were well below the maximum contamination levels (MCL), signifying healthy river water quality status. However, the measured parameters exhibited notable spatial and temporal variations.
The associated biological processes also remain in good condition, however with some concerns relating to the invasive species, particularly Salvinia molesta (State Party of Botswana, 2020), and the veterinary cordon fences which require rationalisation and corresponding management action given their potential limiting effect on migratory processes (UNESCO, 2018, World Heritage Committee, 2018, AHEAD 2019).
Rich diversity of species across many taxa, with significant populations of African mega-fauna
Low Concern
Trend
Data Deficient
Species inventories for most taxa are likely to be far from complete, but the pristine nature of the habitats represented at the property suggests that its biodiversity is likely to be mostly intact. While the number of veterinary fences in the property has not been reduced, the State Party continues to manage existing veterinary fences through the Department of Veterinary Services and wildlife corridors are demarcated to allow for gazettement and free movement of wildlife. Wildlife corridors have been identified in the eastern Okavango Panhandle of the Property in collaboration with Eco-exist Botswana (a conservation NGO), to allow the free movement of wildlife in and out of the property (State Party of Botswana, 2024).
Populations of large animals in the Okavango Delta have fluctuated over the years, however the 2022 aerial survey indicates a healthy elephant population and the State Party has reported a reduction in rhino poaching (Bussière et al. 2023; State Party of Botswana, 2024). However, it should be noted that rhino poaching in this property in the past decade has been so severe that there are no wild rhino remaining inside the Okavango Delta World Heritage property. The Delta's hippo population has increased, probably due to increasing long-term rainfall and inflow, following a period of severe drought/low flooding (Inman et al. 2022). The most recent population estimate indicates that Botswana has the third highest hippo population in Africa, reflecting the importance of the Delta. Reductions in inflow and rainfall from climate change and water resource development would threaten these hippo populations by reducing grazing availability, lagoon sizes, and seasonal swamps.
The NGOWP (2023) monitoring results in the Okavango Delta show large fluctuations in wildlife numbers between years. Buffalo and elephant
were not abundant along the channels on which the transect passed, however when a large heard of either species was observed it skewed the data for that year. Crocodiles and reedbuck were difficult to observe which could account for the variability of their counts over the years. Red lechwe and hippo
numbers were however relatively consistent between years on both eastern and western transects, with the 2023 count of both lechwe and hippo only 11% higher than the average of previous years in the east and 2% above (lechwe) and 5% below (hippo) the average of previous years on the west.
These species are closely associated with the channels where the transects pass so their counts are more consistent (NGOWP, 2023).
For avifauna, large fluctuations in openbill counts between years are attributed to single large flocks flying over the transect, skewing the data. A notable increase of 1075% in ducks and geese in the panhandle from 2015 was observed. More annual counts are needed to know if these fluctuations are normal. A 105% increase in small shorebirds in the west compared to the mean of 2015 to 2022 was observed as well as 65% and 72% decline in darters and cormorants, and smaller herons respectively (together with declines in all sized herons and egrets). These changes might be a result of the very low water levels on the western transect during 2023 (NGOWP, 2023).
Overall, there is unclear picture of the Okavango Delta’s wildlife. The implementation of standard protocols for wildlife monitoring in the Okavango Delta data will assist in more accurately determining species population trends.
Populations of large animals in the Okavango Delta have fluctuated over the years, however the 2022 aerial survey indicates a healthy elephant population and the State Party has reported a reduction in rhino poaching (Bussière et al. 2023; State Party of Botswana, 2024). However, it should be noted that rhino poaching in this property in the past decade has been so severe that there are no wild rhino remaining inside the Okavango Delta World Heritage property. The Delta's hippo population has increased, probably due to increasing long-term rainfall and inflow, following a period of severe drought/low flooding (Inman et al. 2022). The most recent population estimate indicates that Botswana has the third highest hippo population in Africa, reflecting the importance of the Delta. Reductions in inflow and rainfall from climate change and water resource development would threaten these hippo populations by reducing grazing availability, lagoon sizes, and seasonal swamps.
The NGOWP (2023) monitoring results in the Okavango Delta show large fluctuations in wildlife numbers between years. Buffalo and elephant
were not abundant along the channels on which the transect passed, however when a large heard of either species was observed it skewed the data for that year. Crocodiles and reedbuck were difficult to observe which could account for the variability of their counts over the years. Red lechwe and hippo
numbers were however relatively consistent between years on both eastern and western transects, with the 2023 count of both lechwe and hippo only 11% higher than the average of previous years in the east and 2% above (lechwe) and 5% below (hippo) the average of previous years on the west.
These species are closely associated with the channels where the transects pass so their counts are more consistent (NGOWP, 2023).
For avifauna, large fluctuations in openbill counts between years are attributed to single large flocks flying over the transect, skewing the data. A notable increase of 1075% in ducks and geese in the panhandle from 2015 was observed. More annual counts are needed to know if these fluctuations are normal. A 105% increase in small shorebirds in the west compared to the mean of 2015 to 2022 was observed as well as 65% and 72% decline in darters and cormorants, and smaller herons respectively (together with declines in all sized herons and egrets). These changes might be a result of the very low water levels on the western transect during 2023 (NGOWP, 2023).
Overall, there is unclear picture of the Okavango Delta’s wildlife. The implementation of standard protocols for wildlife monitoring in the Okavango Delta data will assist in more accurately determining species population trends.
Habitat for important populations of rare and endangered species
Data Deficient
Trend
Data Deficient
Habitat diversity and condition across the property is good, but there is little information on particular species and few data to indicate population trends for any of the area’s rare and endangered plants and animals (GoB, 2012). Although the State party has developed protocols for wildlife monitoring in the Okavango Delta through the support of SAREP, which includes a web-based portal for analyzing the data, there is still insufficient data to determine trends in species populations. A regular monitoring programme of wildlife populations is necessary.
Landscape of exceptional and rare beauty
Good
Trend
Stable
Whilst these are necessarily subjective assessments, the natural beauty and wilderness values of the delta are widely recognized through popular literature and film (for example, Ross, 2003; Lanting, 1994), and evident from the large numbers of visitors willing to pay for high-end tourist facilities. These values are being maintained through appropriate development of low-volume tourism that has minimal impact. The construction of the bridge at Mohembo, without a sufficient EIA, has the potential to impact this value negatively.
Assessment of the current state and trend of World Heritage values
Stable
The Outstanding Universal Value of the Okavango Delta is the result of complex geological, biophysical and ecological interactions. The annual cycle of flooding, which maintains the wetland habitats and sustains the delta’s biodiversity happens at such a scale as to be largely unaffected by present levels of human activity. Although climate change may influence this system in the future, despite the various perturbations that have been experienced in the system, the Delta has always been able to absorb them and retain its character at the general ecosystem level. The extraordinary natural beauty of the place, with its ever-changing mosaic of open water, islands, channels and swamps is well conserved and in a stable condition. There remains the on-going risks associated with insufficient accurate data pertaining to large mammal population trends, alien invasive aquatic and land-based flora and any future water containment of extraction in the upstream catchment areas of Angola or Namibia. Nevertheless, the improving population trends in elephants and hippos are positive. However, rhino poaching in this property in the past decade has been so severe that there are no wild rhino remaining inside the Okavango Delta World Heritage property. Further, the threat of upstream water off-take in Angola and Namibia will pose an ever increasing threat unless positive policy actions are put in place. The Okavango Commission OKACOM also needs to be strengthened.
Assessment of the current state and trend of other important values
Low Concern
Improving
Indigenous communities, such as the //Anikhwe and Bugakhwe, have deep ecological knowledge and a cultural connection to the Okavango Delta. Although there has been progress in engaging Indigenous peoples in the site's management, more needs to be done to fully integrate Indigenous peoples, not just in the management of the property but also in its governance. The State Party should continue to recognize and incorporate this into decision-making structures. Strengthening Indigenous Peoples' role in governance would ensure a more inclusive and effective conservation approach, respecting their rights and fostering sustainable management practices that align with traditional ecological knowledge.
Additional information
Legal subsistence hunting of wild game,
Collection of wild plants and mushrooms,
Fishing areas and conservation of fish stocks,
Traditional agriculture
Communities benefit greatly from the Delta, with parts of the property under direct management of community trusts. They have access to livelihood materials such as fish, and plants for food but hunting is limited. The State Party remains committed to improving livelihoods of local communities in the Delta and ensuring that they have access to the use of their natural resources (GoB 2015). A number of programmes continue to be implemented by different stakeholders to ensure that local communities benefit from the Okavango delta. These include the Community Based Natural Resources Programme (CBNRM), Poverty Eradication Programme, Youth Empowerment Schemes & Youth Development Fund, Funding programmes such as Citizen Entrepreneurship Development Agency (CEDA) and the Technical Capacity Building programmes for small enterprises through Local Enterprise Authority (LEA).
Factors negatively affecting these benefits are low but need to be managed sustainably.
Access to drinking water
The Okavango Delta system provides vital ecosystem services, and is an important source of fresh water in an otherwise arid region (IUCN, 2014).
At the moment factors negatively affecting water are low, but the biggest threat to the overall integrity of the delta is disruption of the natural flow of water from the catchmnet areas.
History and tradition,
Wilderness and iconic features,
Sacred natural sites or landscapes,
Sacred or symbolic plants or animals,
Cultural identity and sense of belonging
The Okavango Delta hold a number of important historic, cultural and spiritual sites. In order to recognize these sites, the San/Basarwa communities (the original inhabitants of the area) have been requested to document names and positions of all sites of cultural value so that these can be included the action plan for the World Heritage Site. The Special Rapporteu (Shaheed 2016) received the Botswana Government’s assurances that there will be no fencing off of the area, no eviction of local communities and no disruption of their rights of access to natural resources. Consultations with communities are on-going through, for example, a multi-stakeholders community consultative conference held in Maun in March 2015 (Satau et.al. 2015).
Low negative affects on cultural and spiritual values.
Outdoor recreation and tourism,
Natural beauty and scenery
A significant proportion of the local community derives employment through a thriving eco-tourism industry and its associated services. This is based on the natural beauty and scenery of the Okavango Delta. Medicinal plants are collected by the local inhabitants.
Low negative impacts on health and recreation.
Importance for research,
Contribution to education,
Collection of genetic material
There are a number of research projects carried out in the Delta every year. The Okavango Research Institute contributes to scientific knowledge of the area and plays a coordination role. The State Party continues to engage indigenous peoples and local communities, their traditional leaders and other stakeholders such as the University of Botswana (ORI), government departments, and non-governmental organizations to implement a holistic research programme.
The factors negatively affecting knowledge at the site are low.
Collection of timber, e.g. fuelwood,
Sustainable extraction of materials (e.g. coral, shells, resin, rubber, grass, rattan, etc)
The Delta supports the livelihoods of approximately 130,000 local people, most of who depend on its resources for building materials, food and medicines (IUCN, 2014).
The level of impact of the factors negatively affecting materials is low.
Carbon sequestration,
Soil stabilisation,
Flood prevention,
Water provision (importance for water quantity and quality),
Pollination
Rural community livelihoods are largely dependent on the ecosystems services provided by the river’s system and the Okavango Delta system provides a number of these, including; Provision of water for livestock or domestic use; production of wild foods and medicines; production of grazing for livestock; production of fuel, craftwork materials, construction materials; medicine, products for materials science, genes for resistance to plant pathogens and crop pests; climate regulation; carbon sinks; flood attenuation through the reduction of the amplitude and velocity of flood waters by wetlands, reducing downstream damage; groundwater recharge; retention of soil and fertility within an ecosystem; waste treatment through breaking down of waste, detoxifying pollution, dilution and transport of pollutants and the regulation of pests and pathogens. The Economic Value of the of the Cubango-Okavango River Basin was estimated by the Conservation Strategy Fund in 2024 and the key findings are summarized below. The Cubango-Okavango River Basin (CORB) is one of the largest freshwater wetlands in southern Africa, an oasis of life that supports significant biodiversity. The Basin is the main water source for more than one million people and contributes numerous ecosystem services across the three countries in which it spans: Botswana, Namibia, and Angola. The Delta of this Basin is a recognised Key Biodiversity Area and an
important tourism revenue source for all nearby communities.
Annual Total Economic Value of the Okavango Basin in Botswana covering an area of 2.2 million hectares: USD $268 million with an average value per hectare of $1,363.
This annual economic value to Botswana of $268 million was split as follows:
Recreation $200 million
Climate Regulation $10.7 million
Water $5.9 million
Crops $25.8 million
Livestock $19.1 million
Wood $3.8 million
Wild Fish $2.1 million
Wild Animals $0.5 million
Policy Applications for Botswana: Tourism is a key ecosystem service delivered by the CORB, and specifically the Okavango Delta, a recognised Key Biodiversity Area (KBA). To ensure it is sustainably and equitably implemented and managed, Botswana should address the data gaps by collating all tourism entry and payment data and strengthen this through a Willingness to Pay study to inform appropriate pricing of recreation in the Delta.
Transboundary Policy Applications: Considering the valuable services that the ecosystems of the CORB provide across different sectors and populations, it is crucial to understand how development activities and policy decisions will impact these ecosystems and their services.
The ecosystems of the CORB are transboundary and interconnected across Angola, Namibia and Botswana. All three riparian states must collaborate and strengthen the transboundary sustainable management of the Basin through the established OKACOM (The Permanent Okavango River Basin Water Commission).
important tourism revenue source for all nearby communities.
Annual Total Economic Value of the Okavango Basin in Botswana covering an area of 2.2 million hectares: USD $268 million with an average value per hectare of $1,363.
This annual economic value to Botswana of $268 million was split as follows:
Recreation $200 million
Climate Regulation $10.7 million
Water $5.9 million
Crops $25.8 million
Livestock $19.1 million
Wood $3.8 million
Wild Fish $2.1 million
Wild Animals $0.5 million
Policy Applications for Botswana: Tourism is a key ecosystem service delivered by the CORB, and specifically the Okavango Delta, a recognised Key Biodiversity Area (KBA). To ensure it is sustainably and equitably implemented and managed, Botswana should address the data gaps by collating all tourism entry and payment data and strengthen this through a Willingness to Pay study to inform appropriate pricing of recreation in the Delta.
Transboundary Policy Applications: Considering the valuable services that the ecosystems of the CORB provide across different sectors and populations, it is crucial to understand how development activities and policy decisions will impact these ecosystems and their services.
The ecosystems of the CORB are transboundary and interconnected across Angola, Namibia and Botswana. All three riparian states must collaborate and strengthen the transboundary sustainable management of the Basin through the established OKACOM (The Permanent Okavango River Basin Water Commission).
Factors negatively affecting these benefits are moderate and key monitoring needs to be implemented to ensure reduced spread of alien invasive plants.
The key benefits generated by the Okavango Delta World Heritage site depend entirely on the maintained health of a complex ecological system that underpins the ecosystem services it provides. These include food and water, building materials, medicines and health and recreation. The site also provides a very important source of cultural and spiritual value for local communities and visitors. Because of the natural beauty and diversity of the area, the site is a major contributor to local economic development. A study by Conservation Strategy Fund in 2024 estimated the annual Total Economic Value of the Okavango Basin in Botswana covering an area of 2.2 million hectares to be USD $268 million with an average value per hectare of $1,363. The site also affords an opportunity to develop knowledge through research and education which allows for the on-going adaptive management of the site and the education of future generations.
| № | Organization | Brief description of Active Projects | Website |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | TOCaDI (Trust for Okavango Cultural and Development Initiatives) | Support for community development |
https://www.facebook.com/TOCaDI/
|
| 2 | Okavango Research Institute - University of Botswana | Research and Monitoring |
https://ori.ub.bw/
|
| 3 | Birdlife Botswana | Monitoring bird life |
https://www.birdlifebotswana.org.bw/
|
| 4 | Kalahari Conservation Society | The Kalahari Conservation Society is a Botswana-based environmental NGO working to protect the nation's rich biodiversity and natural resources. |
https://www.facebook.com/TheKalahariConservationSociety/?locale=en_GB&_rdr
|
| 5 | National Geographic Society, Wild Bird Trust | The National Geographic Okavango Wilderness Project is a partnership between the National Geographic Society and the Wild Bird Trust, as the implementing partner, committed to securing permanent, sustainable protection for the greater Okavango River Basin, from the source waters in the highlands of Angola, to the Delta in Botswana. Since 2015, NGOWP has been working with local communities; NGOs; and the governments of Angola, Namibia, and Botswana to realize this vision. |
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/society/our-programs/okavango/
|
| 6 | Communities Living Among Wildlife Sustainably (CLAWS) | CONSERVATION COLLABORATION We believe that the science of saving wildlife populations starts with communityHolistic thinking; To reduce human-wildlife conflict in Botswana, CLAWS focuses equally on Wildlife research and technological innovations for conserving species. Community needs, such as safety and supporting livelihoods like traditional cattle herding. From the ground up; Started in 2014 as a small research program, we became a Botswana registered non-governmental organization in 2020 to balance the needs of wildlife and local livelihoods. With partners and communities and through our science-based projects, we develop and deploy innovative strategies that reduce conflict between people and predators. We work to reduce wildlife conflict and promote human-lion coexistence using technology and tradition. Where we work Our working area covers the five villages along the northern edge of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, the contentious interface between the stunning, wildlife rich waterways and traditional, livestock focused communities. Conflict is rife, but there is hope for a better future. These traditional villages lie in the heart of the world’s largest transboundary conservation area, the Kavango-Zambesi Transfontier Conservation Area. Stretching across 5 countries, the KAZA TFCA, larger than 500,000 km2, is hosts a great diversity of landscapes. It’s aim is to strengthen ecological connectivity between member countries and create opportunities to conserve natural resources across these large landscapes. Though primarily restricted to protected areas within, KAZA TFCA represents the largest remaining stronghold for lions in Southern Africa. Our work aligns with the goals of KAZA to protect species, like lion, while at the same time improving livelihoods in this region. |
https://clawsbotswana.org/
|
| 7 | EcoExist Trust | THE ECOEXIST PROJECT - Reducing conflict and fostering coexistence between elephants and people. OUR VISION Ecoexist seeks to reduce conflict and foster coexistence between elephants and people. The team finds and facilitates solutions that work for both species. Our approach connects science with practice. Our mission is to support the lives and livelihoods of people who share space with elephants while considering the needs of elephants and their habitats. Founded in 2013 by a multi-disciplinary team, Ecoexist takes a holistic approach to finding practical, affordable, effective and lasting ways for people and elephants to coexist. In a place of heightened competition for these resources, we strive to find ways for people and elephants to share space by ensuring they are available to both. We address the needs for people to be safe, food secure and gain benefits from living with elephants, while ensuring critical habitat security and safe passage for elephants. We work on the ground and at policy level to create an enabling environment for coexistence. Developing and facilitating multi-stakeholder partnerships is fundamental to our approach and contributes, alongside awareness, education and policy-level engagement as key contributors to the long-term success of our efforts. Our approach is evidence-based. All our activities are monitored through on-going research, improving our knowledge of the issues and providing evidence to guide interventions and inform policy. We adapt our interventions and support with lessons learnt, while exchanging these with, and learning from our partners and other practitioners in the field. |
https://www.ecoexistproject.org/
|
| 8 | Permanent Okavango River Basin Water Commission (OKACOM) | Permanent Okavango River Basin Water Commission (OKACOM), is a river basin organisation established by the three riparian states of Angola, Botswana and Namibia to jointly manage water resources of the Cubango-Okavango River Basin. Vision To promote and strengthen the integrated and sustainable management, use and development of the Cubango-Okavango River Basin at national and transboundary levels according to internationally recognised best practices, so as to protect biodiversity... |
Okavango Research Institute - University of Botswana
|
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