Redwood National and State Parks
Country
United States of America (USA)
Inscribed in
1980
Criteria
(vii)
(ix)
The conservation outlook for this site has been assessed as "good with some concerns" in the latest assessment cycle. Explore the Conservation Outlook Assessment for the site below. You have the option to access the summary, or the detailed assessment.
Redwood National Park comprises a region of coastal mountains bordering the Pacific Ocean north of San Francisco. It is covered with a magnificent forest of coastal redwood trees, the tallest and most impressive trees in the world. The marine and land life are equally remarkable, in particular the sea lions, the bald eagle and the endangered California brown pelican. © UNESCO
Summary
2020 Conservation Outlook
Finalised on
02 Dec 2020
Good with some concerns
Current state and trend of VALUES
Good
Overall THREATS
Overall PROTECTION and MANAGEMENT
Full assessment
Description of values
Natural beauty and superlative natural phenomenon
Criterion
(vii)
The World Heritage site comprises a region of coastal mountains bordering the Pacific Ocean, equidistant (560 kilometers or 350 miles) from San Francisco, California and Portland, Oregon. It is covered with a magnificent forest of coast redwoods (Sequoia sempervirens), the tallest living things and among the most impressive trees in the world. Several of the world’s tallest trees grow within the site (World Heritage Committee, 2019).
Largest, contiguous ancient Redwood Forest
Criterion
(ix)
The site preserves the largest remaining contiguous ancient coast redwood forest in the world in their original forest and streamside settings (World Heritage Committee, 2019).
Diversity of flora and fauna
The site’s diverse habitats are home to 92 mammalian species (e.g. humpback whale, Megaptera novaeangliae), 17 amphibian species (e.g. Pacific giant salamander, Dicamptodon ensatus), 16 reptilian species (e.g. Western fence lizard, Sceloporus occidentalis), 46 fish species (e.g. Coho salmon, Oncorhynchus kisutch), 251 avian species (e.g. Northern spotted owl, Strix occidentalis), 1,000 native vascular plants (e.g. Western hemlock, Tsuga heterophylla), and 986 species of lichen and fungi (e.g. Scaly chanterelle, Gomphus floccosus) that collectively are continuing to evolve in a relatively natural state (National Parks Conservation Association, 2008). The property provides habitat for nine threatened or endangered species and two species that are candidates for listing under the federal Endangered Species Act (National Parks Conservation Association, 2008). Humboldt Lagoons Important Bird Area (IBA global priority) includes portions of Prairie Creek Redwoods State Park. The IBA is a major coastal wintering area for non-marine waterfowls. The mature redwood forest in the World Heritage site supports a significant portion of California’s nesting marbled murrelets (Brachyramphus marmoratus).
Assessment information
Invasive species such as the New Zealand mud snail are affecting aquatic habitats, with potential for negative impacts through the food chain. The impeded estuary at Redwood Creek has also modified the ecosystem function and habitat for salmonids. The network of failing logging roads that were established before inscription threatens streams with sedimentation. Highly modified stands of post-logging regrowth dominate the forests in the World Heritage site, adversely affecting wildlife habitat and native flora. However, the legacy of past timber extraction was known at the time of inscription (in 1980) and has been subject to an active program of rehabilitation. The main impediment to further positive progress is the uncertainty of funding.
Invasive Non-Native/ Alien Species, Pathogens
(Invasive species)
Other invasive species names
Sudden Oak Death (Phytopthera ramorum), Reed canary grass, English ivy, New Zealand mud snails (Potamopyrgus antipodarum), Asian clams (Corbicula fluminea), Chinese mystery snails (Cipangoludina chinensis malleata), Brazilian water weed (Egaria densa)
Inside site
, Widespread(15-50%)
Outside site
There are over 300 exotic plant, animal, and pathogen species in the World Heritage site. The NPS website identifies particular invasive species of concern (NPS, 2020). Notable examples are the New Zealand mud snail that impacts the food web within the Redwood Creek estuary and reed canary grass which displaces native vegetation on coastal stream banks.
Roads, Trails & Railroads
(Legacy of logging roads)
Inside site
, Widespread(15-50%)
Outside site
A network of failing logging roads of at least 660km (Law, 2011) adds sediment to streams (van Mantgem et al., 2013; Golightly et al., 2011; NPS, 2000). The impacts on amphibian species have been examined and documented (Welsh Jr. et al., 2019). Park authorities have been removing roads since 1978, with 400 km done by 2011 (IUCN Consultation, 2020). Funding is the main impediment to completing the remaining 200 km; however, assistance is coming from civil society, with collaboratives such as 'Redwoods Rising' (Save the Redwoods, 2020). This threat is therefore well recognised and being addressed, with considerable progress made since inscription of the property in 1980.
Unknown Threats
(Lack of fire in old growth forest)
Inside site
, Widespread(15-50%)
Outside site
Too little fire is changing forest understory structure and composition (Lorimer et al., 2009; NPS, 2010; Golightly et al., 2011). The elimination of cultural burning by indigenous groups has been the driver behind too little fire in forested settings. This is a chronic threat which could become potentially severe as climate changes. NPS's prescribed burning program is focussed on grasslands and woodlands and is therefore unlinked to the lack of burning in old growth forests (IUCN Consultation, 2020).
Other Ecosystem Modifications
(Legacy of past timber harvest)
Inside site
, Throughout(>50%)
Outside site
Past timber harvest caused loss of woody debris, change in forest structure and loss of biodiversity. Ranching and land conversion led to an introduction of exotics, altered hydrology, and extirpated fauna including grizzly bears and condors. This also contributed to the creation of a 660-km road network (Law 2011) that disrupts estuarine habitat (and aquatic habitat generally) for fisheries. Approximately 55% of the parks consist of post-logging regrowth (Law 2011, based on NPS documents). These small-statured young forests fragment otherwise intact old growth habitat with impacts on dispersal and connectivity and do not provide as much cooling to streams, leading to temperature impairment and negative impacts on fish populations. Much post-logging regrowth has stunted trees and degraded species composition (Golightly et al., 2011; Keyes and Teraoka 2014; Koopman et al., 2014). In 2011, approximately 4000 ha of impaired regrowth forest required treatment (Law 2011, based on NPS documents). In 2020, the Redwood Rising collaborative commenced implmentation of projects to address degradation from past logging on approximately 14,000 ha of park lands, in both the Mill Creek and Prairie Creek watersheds (IUCN Consultation, 2020). The threat is therefore being actively addressed, with considerable progress made since inscription of the property in 1980.
Unknown Threats
(Inadequate old growth habitat)
Outside site
Harvested stands surrounding the old-growth habitat are heavily modified forests that provide little habitat for marbled murrelets, mesocarnivores (including the Pacific fisher and Humboldt marten) and many more species, and require restoration (NPS 2000). Inside the property, around two-thirds of the forest (55% of the land area) has previously been harvested, and outside of the property it is understood that the extent is as far as 95%.
Unknown Threats
(Impeded estuary at Redwood Creek)
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Outside site
The Redwood Creek estuary was negatively impacted by the creation of levees in Orick to protect valley-wide agricultural lands from flood waters. The levees, however, have destroyed ecosystem function and habitat at the Redwood Creek estuary, particularly for listed salmonids. The levees have also contributed to chronic flooding issues in Sand Cache Creek, a tributary connected to the estuary. A coalition of agency personnel and private landowners are collaborating to determine treatments that will improve aquatic ecosystems and habitat at the Redwood Creek estuary and reduce chronic flooding of pastures adjacent to the estuary (NPS, 2000; IUCN Consultation, 2020).
Climate change and associated alteration in fire regimes, emerging disease, species composition changes, and spread of invasive plants all constitute major potential threats to the World Heritage site. Forest fires have been prevalent in other parts of California. So far, the awe-inspiring stands of redwoods in the World Heritage site have been spared. However, the threat is clear and with respect to wildfire, it is believed by some NGOs and scientists that the threat is exacerbated by the long-term absence of fire from many of these ecosystems. The presence of sudden oak death within the forests of the World Heritage site may to some extent, exacerbate the effects of fire in old growth redwoods forests, though there is no evidence to date of widespread mortality of tree of shrub species (only tanoak) that are typically found in the site.
Droughts, Temperature extremes
(Climate change)
Inside site
, Throughout(>50%)
Outside site
The threat of climate change has been reported by park authorities in visitor guides since at least as far back as 2011 (Redwood Parks Association, 2011), and major climate changes are predicted for California (Hayhoe et al., 2004; Fernandez et al., 2015). Twentieth-century climate changes accelerated growth of Sequoia sempervirens (Sillett et al., 2015), but the future impacts of further climate changes to S. sempervirens and other taxa are unknown. Major fires in California are already reported each year, leading to forest fires, though it has not reached the oldgrowth coast redwoods (Save the Redwoods, 2020). It is unclear what effect climate change may have on forests of the World Heritage site, and whether or to what degree its forests will be impacted. There is concern that climate change may increase wildfires, change species composition and habitat, increase emerging disease, and provide greater pathways for invasive species spread.
Dams & Water Management/Use
(Water diversion)
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
Outside site
The World Heritage site currently has several small dams which are anadromous fish barriers (inside the site). Klamath dams have negatively impacted fisheries by reducing streamflow and increasing stream temperature (outside of the site), however dam removal is planned for 2022. Historical logging roads have created dozens of watercourse crossings that are barriers to fish passage in addition the small dams mentioned above (IUCN Consultation, 2020).
The National Park Service (NPS) and the California Department of Parks and Recreation (CDPR) administratively combined Redwood National Park with the three abutting Redwood State Parks in 1994 for the purpose of cooperative forest management and stabilization of forests and watersheds (NPS 2020, NPS 2000). Redwood National and State Parks, including Prairie Creek, Del Norte Coast, and Jedediah Smith Redwoods State Parks and Redwood National Park, are managed under a cooperative management agreement between the NPS and CDPR. The parks comprising the World Heritage site share a General Management Plan (General Plan 2000) and cooperate across the board to protect park resources and provide visitor services. Despite recent challenges, the NPS remains an exemplary management body thanks to dedicated staff and a strong internal culture.
A strong and comprehensive management plan (General Plan) is in place (NPS, 2000). Although it is over 20 years old, the provisions remain applicable. However, climate change is an increasing threat seldom fully recognised in older management documents. An update to the plan to address this issue would be timely. Restoration of the parks' network of failing logging roads remains a serious issue; this is recognised by NPS, which has overseen some phenomenal achievements on this front since 1978, and is provided for in the General Plan. Most of the park areas lack a specific restoration plan in addition to shortage of funding to implement them (IUCN Consultation, 2017). However, the parks through collaboration under Redwoods Rising is aiming to address the challenges of funding and implementing watershed scale restoration.
The parks originally consisted of isolated pockets of stupendous oldgrowth redwood forest. In 1978, just prior to the area's inscription as a World Heritage site, significant tracts were added to Redwood National Park in order to improve its ecological integrity. Much of the forest added had been logged - this was a transformation in thinking about the reasons for having national parks, transcending the belief that parks could only ever encompass pristine country. Despite this innovation, the parks' boundaries have remained an issue as some habitats, including pine forest, oak woodlands and estuaries, are not fully protected. The perimeter of the parks is long and convoluted for the amount of land contained within them, creating significant edge effects. Park authorities liaise with adjacent landowners on issues of timber harvest and fencing for cattle (IUCN Consultation, 2014). The parks also overlap indigenous peoples' lands at the mouth of the Klamath River. Park management works in cooperation with indigenous partners to address resource concerns in common. The work of the parks and Save the Redwoods League in both acquiring areas adjacent to parks and in creating the 'Redwoods Rising' collaborative are also a proactive way of addressing these threats (Save the Redwoods, 2020).
Integration between the National Park Service and California State Parks is provided for through formal agreements and the general plan (NPS 2000, 2020).
The site works with adjacent landowners in the Park Protection Zone (PPZ) and the Redwood Creek watershed as a whole to restore roads and comment on Timber Harvest Plans. There are also government-to-government relationship with the Yurok Tribe (Parks CA, 2020) and the NPS and State Parks also consult with Elk Valley and Smith River Rancherias (Tolowa) and Tolowa Dee-ni’ Nation and Rancherias associated with them (IUCN Consultation, 2020). At Gans Prairie the Park is working with tribes to reintroduce ceremonies and cultural practices to traditional cultural properties that were formerly maintained through such practices. However, there are some conflicting interests in resources and land management approaches with multiple communities surrounding the park (IUCN Consultation, 2017). The parks have an effective program for recruiting and managing volunteers (Parks CA 2020b; NPS 2020).
The combination of state and federal ownership with jurisdictional overlap adds complexity, however this has been dealt with effectively through formal institutional arrangements. In addition to federal and state laws, there are regulations contained in the Superintendent's Compendium that apply to more detailed matters such as noise, pets, firearms, access, fires, traditional use, parking and wildlife (NPS 2020b).
Park resources are negatively impacted by illegal activities including marijuana cultivation (Rose 2019), burl and wildlife (deer, elk, fishing) poaching, social trails, unauthorised climbing of trees and rock faces. Due to the fact that these activities occur scattered throughout the park, they are difficult to police. Park law enforcement programs have been largely successful in preventing marijuana plots within park boundaries. However, this illegal encroachment continues upstream of the site within Redwood Creek watershed, creating potential problems within the site itself.
There have been no substantive decisions on this site by the World Heritage Committee since 1995 so this topic has not been applicable.
The Superintendent's Compendium sets out rules regarding uses of the park, including collection of sea shells, nuts, fruits etc (NPS 2020b). Corvid populations are increasing due to human food subsidies in campgrounds, thereby increasing corvid predation on native fauna (West et al. 2016). Proposed rerouting of highway 101 through part of the coast redwoods remains a focal point of park discussions (Egelko 2019), the purpose of which is described to avoid highway closures due to frequent and deadly landslides.
Consistent, sustainable funding for parks remains uncertain. While congress increased funding to national parks by 3% in December 2019 (NPCA, 2020) budget stability is never certain. The same is true for California State Parks. Fortunately, under the umbrella of Redwoods Rising, the parks and Save the Redwoods League have been able to raise significant funds from public and philanthropic sources to engage in major conservation measures such as rehabilitation of logged areas and retirement of old logging roads (Save the Redwoods, 2020). According to the League, there has been a recent achievement in ensuring that money from the Land and Water Conservation Fund is allocated to parts of the property (Save the Redwoods, 2020). However, the backdrop of continually reduced government funding for parks generally, and the World Heritage site in particular, is cause for concern.
California Department of Parks and Recreation staff at the Park are already below minimal staff levels and Redwood National Park staffing levels are always threatened (IUCN Consultation, 2017). Although federal funding for national parks increased by 3% in December 2019, this is not enough to deal with the backlog of rehabilitation projects necessary in the site (NPCA, 2020). Budget cuts that have occurred over the last decade have trimmed staffing levels in various management programs.
The NPS put in place a long-term interpretive plan for the World Heritage site in 2003 (NPWS, 2020). Programs have been underfunded for some years (IUCN Consultation, 2017). The site delivers environmental education programs featuring redwood ecosystems to approximately 7000 students annually at the Wolf Creek and Howland Hill outdoor schools. The parks have world-class interpretation materials on their websites (Parks CA, 2020b; NPS, 2020) and this is enhanced through partnership with the NGO 'Save the Redwoods League'. There are some truly awe-inspiring nature trails within the parks with excellent signage accompanied by informative brochures and maps (Law, 2011). There are several excellent visitor centres which receive complimentary comments online (NPS, 2020; Law, 2011), as well as engaging and informative programs such as the Junior Ranger program and evening campfire talks. These efforts are enhanced through partnerships with the Redwoods Park Conservancy and Save the Redwoods League.
According to the National Parks Service, over 482,000 people visited Redwood National Park in 2018. It conservatively estimated that the total number of visitors to the World Heritage site as a whole (including the state parks) is over 1.5 million people per annum (NPS, 2020c). There are several visitor centres, numerous well-managed and accessible nature trails, well-managed camping areas, and many interpretation and educational programs to engage visitors. In addition, the Superintendent's Compendium contains a set of prescriptions governing visitation to the area, including access, fires, camping, parking and collection of materials (NPS 2020b). In March 2020, many of the park's facilities were closed due to the global COVID-19 pandemic.
The NPS carries out systematic monitoring of 'vital signs', including key endemic species, invasive species as well as attributes that apply across all ecosystems such as temperature (NPS, 2020). The concern is that ongoing budget reductions will reduce staff and programs.
There are approximately 40-60 annual permits for scientific research in RNSP. A number of research programs are carried out by park managers in partnership with Humbolt State University (NPS, 2020; Humboldt SU, 2020) and the Save the Redwoods League (Save the Redwoods, 2020).
Assessment of the effectiveness of protection and management in addressing threats outside the site
Mostly Effective
Park managers are able to address potential threats from outside the World Heritage site, either directly or in partnerships with other entities. Park managers have formal agreements with local indigenous peoples to manage natural and cultural resources. Formal and informal consultation also occurs with other adjacent landowners. The management system is as effective as it can be given the convoluted boundaries of the site and the high degree of disturbance adjacent to the site as a result of logging.
Good practice examples
A new example of collaborative park resource protection and restoration, is Redwoods Rising, a joint effort by the National Park Service, California Department of Parks and Recreation, and Save the Redwoods League to restore previously logged redwood habitat. By leveraging park staff time and financial resources with new public and private support, Redwoods Rising is a creative new model to accelerate habitat restoration and improve visitor enjoyment of the park. Redwoods Rising effectiveness stems from the strong track record of watershed restoration in Mill Creek, Prairie Creek, and Redwood Creek that has set (to date) 5,000 acres of logged forest on a trajectory towards recovery and eliminated hundreds of miles of logging roads and skids trails to reduce erosion threats. The park delivers high-quality environmental education programs featuring redwood ecosystems to ~7000 students annually at the Wolf Creek and Howland Hill outdoor schools. The park has a government to government relationship with the Yurok Tribe and also consults with Elk Valley and Smith River Rancherias (Tolowa). Through these partnerships, the park is implementing a plan at Gans Prairie to reintroduce ceremonies and cultural practices to traditional cultural properties that were formerly maintained through such practices.
Assessment of the current state and trend of World Heritage values
Improving
Assessment of the current state and trend of other important biodiversity values
Low Concern
Deteriorating
Many common bird species have stable populations, though a few are declining (Golightly et al., 2011). The hydrologic regime and aquatic habitat complexity are slowly recovering due to stewardship and restoration, yet key salmonid populations are declining (Golightly et al., 2011). Some key waterways are impaired. Northern spotted owls and marbled murrelets are likely declining due to complex species interactions and replacement by invasive bird species (barred owl).
Additional information
Outdoor recreation and tourism
Around 1.5 million people have visited the site each year since 2016.
There are minor impacts of social trails and increasing concern with new invasive species. Climate change is a globally pervasive factor.
Carbon sequestration
The oldgrowth coast redwood forest is the most carbon-dense forest on Earth.
Sudden Oak Death is killing tanoak trees in RNSP, leading to a loss of carbon storage and sequestration. This mortality however, is likely to be balanced out by growth of other tree species, the continued lack of fire, and infilling of fire sensitive species.
Water provision (importance for water quantity and quality)
The watersheds in the park filter water and provide critical habitat for threatened salmonids.
Redwood Creek is EPA 303 (d) listed as temperature and sediment impaired. Salmonid habitat is significantly impacted by legacies of past land use, including logging roads.
Importance for research
The park provides many opportunities for research and education, is a repository for cultural history.
Coastal protection
The park protects over 50 km of coast.
Sea level rise and invasive coastal species threaten habitats.
The park provides many jobs in local community for resource management, law enforcement, education, and tourism.
Wilderness and iconic features
The park includes traditional lands of cultural and spiritual significance for Native American groups including the Chilula, Tolowa, and Yurok (National Parks Conservation Association, 2008). It also provides opportunities for enjoyment of nature in secluded and tranquil settings for people of all backgrounds.
The park offers widespread benefits that include local jobs, preservation of cultural ties to the land for indigenous peoples and ecological services. Approximately 1.5 million people have visited the parks each year since 2016 for recreation, research and education. The parks' forests store a disproportionally large amount of carbon and provide clean water for surrounding communities. The park protects coastline and numerous sites that are spiritually and culturally significant.
| № | Organization | Brief description of Active Projects | Website |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | NPS | Bald Hills Prescribed Fire | |
| 2 | CDPR | Mill Creek Watershed Restoration | |
| 3 | CDPR | Mill Creek Forest Management | |
| 4 | NPS | Invasive Plant Management | |
| 5 | CDPR | Gold Bluffs Beach Restoration | |
| 6 | NPS, CDPR, Save the Redwoods League (SRL) | 'Redwoods Rising'. Redwoods Rising is a collaboration between Save the Redwoods League, the National Park Service, and California State Parks. It will greatly accelerate the pace of redwood forest recovery within these parks and help protect the area’s remaining old-growth groves. |
https://www.savetheredwoods.org/project/redwoods-rising/
https://www.nps.gov/redw/redwoodsrisingmain.htm
|
| 7 | SRL | Redwood Genome Project. The Redwood Genome Project is a five-year effort to determine the sequence of the redwood genomes and will develop tools to assess genetic diversity. |
https://www.savetheredwoods.org/project/redwood-genome-project/
|
| 8 | Humboldt State University | Numerous projects (not necessarily all within the property): Save the Redwoods League’s Redwood Climate Change Initiative (Phase 2) Dendrochronology—Tree-ring samples collected during routine measurements are crossdated to quantify tree ages, rates of productivity, and dendroclimatic relationships. Biodiversity of old-growth redwood forest canopy—One 1-hectare plot and additional trees in Redwood Experimental Forest are being monitored for arboreal wildlife (diversity, behavior) and canopy microclimates (light, wind, temperature, humidity, soil moisture). Allometric equations for the six tallest tree species—Having completed equations for Sequoia sempervirens, Sequoiadendron giganteum, and Eucalyptus regnans, work on the remaining 3 species (Pseudotsuga menziesii, Picea sitchensis, and Eucalyptus globulus) is underway. Manipulating tree crown structure to accelerate development of old-growth characteristics in second-growth redwood forests |
https://www.humboldt.edu/redwoods/research.php
|
References
| № | References |
|---|---|
| 1 |
Bauer, S. et al. (2014) Impacts of surface water diversions for marijuana cultivation on aquatic habitat in four northwestern California watersheds. In: Redwood Creek Symposium Proceedings, Watershed Condition & Needs Report. Orick, California.
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| 2 |
Dawson, T. (1998). Fog in the California redwood forest: ecosystem inputs and use by plants. Oecologia, 117: 476-485.
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| 3 |
Egelko, B (2019). Wider Highway 101 in California redwood grove is blocked by judge [online]. San Francisco Chronicle, 6 May 2019. [online] <https://www.sfchronicle.com/science/article/Wider-Highway-1… 2 February 2020.
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| 4 |
Fernandez, M., H. Hamilton, L. Kueppers. (2015). Back to the future: using historical climate variation to project near-term shifts in habitat suitable for coast redwood. Global Change Biology, doi: 10.1111/gcb.13027.
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| 5 |
Golightly, R. T., S. H. Kramer, and C. D. Hamilton. (2011). Assessment of natural resource and watershed condition: Redwood National and State Parks, Whiskeytown National Recreation Area, and Oregon Caves National Monument. Natural Resource Report NPS/NRPC/WRD/NRR—2011/335. National Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado.
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| 6 |
Hayhoe, K., Cayan, D., Field, C.B., Frumhoff, P.C., Maurer, E.P., Miller, N.L., Moser, S.C., Schneider, S.H., Cahill, K.N., Cleland, E.E., Dale, L., Drapek, R., Hanemann, R.M., Kalkstein, L.S., Lenihan, J., Lunch, C.K., Neilson, R.P., Sheridan, S.C., Verville, J.H. (2004). Emission pathways, climate change, and impacts on California. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences Aug 2004, 101 (34) 12422-12427; DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0404500101.
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| 7 |
Humboldt SU (2020). Professor Steven Sillett, Current Research [online]. <https://www.humboldt.edu/redwoods/research.php>;. Accessed 2 February 2020.
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| 8 |
IUCN Consultation. (2017). IUCN Confidential Consultation- Redwood National and State Parks, United States of America
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| 9 |
IUCN Consultation. (2020). IUCN Confidential Consultation- Redwood National and State Parks, United States of America
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| 10 |
Keyes, C. and E. Teraoka. (2014). Structure and Composition of Old-Growth and Unmanaged Second-Growth Riparian Forests at Redwood National Park, USA. Forests, 5: 256-268. [online] <www.mdpi.com/1999-4907/5/2/256/pdf>;.
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| 11 |
Koopman, M., D. DellaSala, P. van Mantgem, B. Blom, J. Teraoka, R. Shearer, D. LaFever, J. Seney. (2014). Managing an Ancient Ecosystem for the Modern World: Coast Redwoods and Climate Change. Geos Institute. [online] <http://climatewise.org/images/projects/coast-redwoods-repor…;.
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| 12 |
Law, G (2011). Distant Affinities. The challenges facing temperate forests in World Heritage Areas (USA, Slovakia and Japan). Report to the Winston Churchill Memorial Trust of Australia, December 2011. [online] <https://www.churchilltrust.com.au/media/fellows/2010_Law_Ge…;.
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| 13 |
Lorimer, C., D. Porter, M. A. Madej, J. D. Stuart, S. D Veirs Jr., S. P. Norman, K. O’Hara, W. Libby. (2009). Presettlement and modern disturbance regimes in coast redwood forests: Implications for the conservation of old-growth stands. Forest Ecology and Management, 258: 1038-1054. [online] <http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.54…;.
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| 14 |
NPCA (2019). Media Release: President’s Budget Proposal Damaging to National Parks as They Continue to Recover from Government Shutdown [online] <https://www.npca.org/articles/2130-president-s-budget-propo… 2 February 2020.
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| 15 |
NPS (2000) Redwood National and State Parks, California, General Management Plan. National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior. [online]. <https://www.parks.ca.gov/pages/21299/files/GMP.pdf>;.
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| 16 |
NPS (2010) Redwood National Fire Management Plan. National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior.
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| 17 |
NPS (2020c) Economic Benefit of Redwood National Park [online] <https://www.nps.gov/redw/learn/news/2018visitorspending.htm… 2 February 2020.
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| 18 |
NPWS (2020b). Superintendent's Compendium. [online] <https://www.nps.gov/redw/learn/management/upload/2019-REDW-…;.
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| 19 |
National Parks Service (2020). Redwood National and State Parks [online] <https://www.nps.gov/redw/index.htm>;.
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| 20 |
Parks CA (2020) Volunteers in Parks [online] <https://www.parks.ca.gov/?page_id=886>. Accessed 2 February 2020.
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| 21 |
Parks CA (2020b). California Coastal Redwood Parks [online] <https://www.parks.ca.gov/?page_id=24723>. Accessed 2 February 2020.
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| 22 |
Redwood Parks Association (2011). Visitor Guide. In cooperation with Redwood National and State Parks.
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| 23 |
Rose (2019). Why California's Soaring Redwoods Face an Uncertain Future [online] <https://theuprootedrose.com/blog/redwood-threats>;. Accessed 1 February 2020.
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| 24 |
Save the Redwoods League (2020). Forever Forest - the campaign for the redwoods [online]. https://www.savetheredwoods.org/
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| 25 |
Sillett, S. C., Van Pelt, R., Koch, G. W., Ambrose, A. R., Carroll, A. L., Antoine, M. E., & Mifsud, B. M. (2010). Increasing wood production through old age in tall trees. Forest Ecology and Management, 259(5), 976-994. <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2009.12.003>;.
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| 26 |
Sillett, S., R. Van Pelt, R. Kramer, A. Ambrose, D. Trask. (2015). How do tree structure and old age affect growth potential of California redwoods? Ecological Monographs, 85: 181-212. [online] <http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1890/14-1016.1/abstra…;.
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| 27 |
UC Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources. (2013). Coast redwoods increasingly susceptible to fire damage. [online] Available at: https://ucanr.edu/blogs/blogcore/postdetail.cfm?postnum=113… (Accessed 8 September 2020).
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| 28 |
Welsh Jr., Hartwell H. Cummings, Adam K. Hodgson, Garth R (2019) Metrics of disturbance in a redwood forest ecosystem: responses of stream amphibians to repeated sediment infusions. Vol. 10, Issue 10. https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002…;
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| 29 |
West, E., W. Henry, W. Goldenberg, M. Z. Peery. (2016). Influence of food subsidies on the foraging ecology of a synanthropic species in protected areas. Ecophere, 7: e01532. [online] <http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ecs2.1532/pdf>;.
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| 30 |
World Heritage Committee. (2019). Decision 43 COM 8E. Adoption of retrospective Statements of Outstanding Universal Value- Redwood National and State Parks (USA). [online] Baku, Azerbaijan: UNESCO. Available at: https://whc.unesco.org/en/decisions/7393 (Accessed 10 October 2019).
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