Sagarmatha National Park

At the time of inscription, there were approximately 2,500 Sherpas living in the Park and another 7,500 people living in the buffer zone. Their lands within Sagarmatha National Park were excluded from the Park by legal definition (IUCN, 1979). Since that time, there has been ongoing involvement and support of local communities in the field of conservation and management. A Park Advisory Committee was established in 1982 (UNESCO, 2014), but has not been active since the 1980s. The current management framework of SNP, which designates the Sherpa as stakeholders rather than rights holders, undermines their autonomy and traditional governance systems. Recognizing and formalizing Indigenous and Community Conserved Areas (ICCAs) within SNP would not only uphold indigenous rights but also enhance conservation outcomes by integrating local knowledge and practices into park management (Stevens, 2013; SNP Management Plan, 2016). Recent studies emphasize the need for a rights-based conservation paradigm to address the ecological strain from tourism and ensure equitable benefit-sharing, as highlighted in the 2021 IUCN report on community conservation (IUCN, 2021).
Sherpa culture (including Buddhist values, traditions of protecting the region as a sacred valley, and still active community forest and pasture management systems) contributes strongly to nature conservation (Mu et al., 2018). The importance of tourism in the local economy has also encouraged Sherpas to help to protect the area. Men elected by village assemblies continue to take on the duties of coordinating the seasonal migration of livestock, preventing green wood cutting, protecting plantations and reporting poaching. They are authorized to prosecute and collect limited penalties from violators of the forest protection rules and to use the fines for community purposes (WCMC, 2011). Concerns however remain regarding the impact of tourism on social cohesion and cultural practices among Sherpa and other ethnic groups (IUCN Consultation, 2014; Mu et al., 2018). In addition to the basic function of the buffer zone in enhancing protection of the property’s OUV, the objective of the buffer zone management is cited in the Management Plan as garnering the support of local people and involving them in nature conservation. Accordingly, a Buffer Zone Management Committee (BZMC) overseeing three Buffer Zone User Committees (BZUCs) and 28 Buffer Zone User Groups (BZUGs), has been established and up to 50% of the Park revenue is channelled to the communities for the implementation of conservation and community development programmes aimed at institutional development, alternative natural resource development, capacity building, financial management, conservation education and awareness (DNPWC, 2024). The Management Plan notes that the buffer zone programme is a benefit sharing mechanism, which involves sustainable development, tourism promotion and reconciliation of the park-people interface. The programme has been very successful with regard to forest resource development, habitat protection in the buffer zone and community participation in conservation.

The legal framework of Sagarmatha National Park (SNP) is rooted in the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act of 1973 and the Himalayan National Park Regulations of 1978. Subsequent measures, such as the declaration of a buffer zone in 2002 and the Buffer Zone Management Plan of 2004, emphasize community involvement in conservation and sustainable resource use.

Of some concern is the reported amendment of wildlife legislation in 2024 which allows the construction of hydropower and tourism resorts in national parks. The potential impact on the OUV remains uncertain (47 COM 7B.13).

Sagarmatha National Park employs a multi-tiered governance system that integrates central authorities, local communities, and NGOs to ensure effective protection and sustainable management of its biodiversity, cultural heritage, and natural resources. The Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC) oversees policy and regulatory aspects, while the Sagarmatha National Park Office manages on-ground operations. Local participation is facilitated through the Buffer Zone Management Committee (BZMC) and User Committees (BZUCs), alongside the Sagarmatha Pollution Control Committee (SPCC), which addresses waste and pollution challenges. Law enforcement, supported by the Nepali Army and Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB), combats illegal activities. Nepal’s three-tier government structure federal, provincial, and local/municipal grants local municipalities, such as the Khumbu Pasang Lhamu Rural Municipality, authority over services and natural resources within their jurisdictions, including those within SNP. This decentralised governance model is expected to influence the management of SNP as a World Heritage site, ensuring that local stakeholders play an active role in its protection and sustainable management. Collaborations with IUCN, WWF, and UNESCO enhance adherence to global conservation standards. However, challenges such as tourism pressure, climate change, and infrastructure development threaten the park's Outstanding Universal Value (OUV). To mitigate these threats, strategies including revised management plans, tourism regulation, climate adaptation, and capacity-building for communities are being implemented, ensuring long-term protection of this UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Sagarmatha National Park (SNP) is deeply integrated into local, regional, and national planning systems, ensuring landscape connectivity and sustainable resource management. The 2016-2020 Management Plan emphasises the importance of transboundary cooperation, which remains a key feature of the park’s management strategy. At the national level, the park operates under the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act of 1973, supported by Buffer Zone Management Regulations and national biodiversity strategies, which provide a comprehensive legal and policy framework for conservation. Regionally, SNP is a key component of the Himalayan landscape, maintaining critical ecosystem continuity and biodiversity corridors through its buffer zone program. The immediate ecological connectivity is maintained through adjacent protected areas, including Makalu Barun National Park to the east, Gauri Shankar Conservation Area to the west, and the Qomolangma Nature Reserve in the Tibetan Autonomous Region to the north. These areas collectively enhance the conservation of SNP’s values and biodiversity. This program actively involves adjacent communities in sustainable resource management, fostering a collaborative approach to conservation. Locally, the Buffer Zone Management Committees (BZMCs) and User Committees (BZUCs) play a pivotal role in grassroots participation, promoting sustainable practices that balance conservation goals with the livelihoods of local communities. SNP also contributes to international initiatives such as the Sacred Himalayan Landscape and its UNESCO World Heritage designation, emphasizing landscape connectivity and transboundary conservation efforts. These multi-level integrations ensure that SNP’s conservation strategies are aligned with broader ecological and socio-economic objectives, enhancing the resilience of its ecosystems and supporting the well-being of local and regional stakeholders.

The boundaries of Sagarmatha National Park (SNP) are clearly defined by national borders and physical features, encompassing distinct ecological and geographical entities. While the park’s buffer zone, established to promote sustainable resource use and community involvement, has not been formally recognized as part of the inscribed World Heritage property, it plays a critical role in supporting ecological connectivity. In its 2024 State of Conservation Report, the State Party noted that extensive consultations with local communities revealed no support for formally recognising the buffer zone as part of the World Heritage property (State Party of Nepal, 2024). Despite this, ecological connectivity is maintained through adjacent protected areas, including Makalu Barun National Park to the east, Gauri Shankar Conservation Area to the west, and the Qomolangma Nature Reserve in the Tibetan Autonomous Region to the north. These areas collectively enhance the conservation of SNP’s values and biodiversity.

Ramsar Site for the Gokyo Lakes, which partially overlaps with the park's boundaries, emphasizing the importance of wetland conservation within the broader landscape. These overlapping designations enhance the park's protection by providing additional legal and institutional frameworks. Both designations under the same managing authorities (State Party of Nepal, 2023).

Sagarmatha National Park (SNP) has taken significant steps to implement World Heritage Committee decisions and recommendations, though challenges persist. Collaboration between park authorities, local stakeholders, and the Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal has improved regulation of helicopter use, primarily for rescue and emergency operations, but stricter measures are needed to address unregulated traffic. Efforts to formalize the buffer zone remain stalled due to community objections, despite ongoing consultations. The revised Management Plan, nearing completion, includes a dedicated tourism chapter to manage visitor carrying capacity, though its effectiveness in addressing tourism growth is yet to be seen. The revised plan also incorporates a zonation system to enhance management of the core and buffer zones, aligning with conservation goals. Additionally, environmental compliance monitoring for projects like hydropower developments in the buffer zone has been strengthened, with EIAs and mitigation measures under close scrutiny.

Outstanding issues relate to the development of a Tourism Management Plan, the Ama Dablam micro-hydropower project and regarding the reported amendment of wildlife legislation in 2024 which allows the construction of hydropower and tourism resorts in national parks (47 COM 7B.13).

Sagarmatha National Park (SNP) is a critical area for climate action due to its ecological importance and high vulnerability to global warming. Recent scientific studies, including a 2022 report in Nature Climate Change and the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report (2021), highlight the severe impacts of climate change in the region, such as rapid glacier melt, permafrost thaw, and changing weather patterns. These changes threaten biodiversity, water resources, and the livelihoods of local communities. The park has already seen significant ice loss, increasing the risk of glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs), which pose dangers to people and infrastructure downstream. To address these challenges, SNP has taken proactive steps, including reforestation programs, promoting sustainable tourism, and implementing community-based monitoring systems. By combining traditional knowledge with scientific research, SNP is working to protect its unique environment and serve as a model for climate resilience in mountain regions. These efforts are essential to safeguarding the park’s natural and cultural heritage for future generations.

Sagarmatha National Park (SNP) has a well-structured and adaptive management system designed to protect its unique biodiversity, cultural heritage, and natural resources while addressing modern challenges like climate change and tourism growth. The park’s management plan focuses on dividing the area into zones for conservation, sustainable resource use, and community activities, ensuring minimal harm to critical ecosystems. It combines traditional Sherpa practices with modern conservation techniques, including reforestation, anti-poaching efforts, and waste management. A visitor tracking system helps regulate tourism, reducing its environmental impact. SNP also works closely with local communities through buffer zone committees to promote sustainable practices and fair resource sharing. The management system is guided by scientific research and international standards, such as those from the IPCC and IUCN, to address urgent issues like glacier retreat and glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs). Nevertheless, the current management plan is now outdated and requires updating. According to the latest periodic report, the development of an updated comprehensive management plan is underway (State Party of Nepal, 2023).

The park enforces strict regulations to address challenges such as illegal poaching, waste management, and unregulated activities, including the use of drones by visitors. Recent assessments highlight the importance of drone regulations under Nepal’s "Drone Related Procedure, 2019," which mandates multiple levels of approval from the Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal (CAAN), the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC), and the District Administration Office (DAO), before final authorisation by the park authorities. These measures are essential to minimise disruptions to wildlife, protect cultural heritage, and ensure visitor safety. Enhanced monitoring systems, such as the Visitor Tracking System, and community-based enforcement mechanisms further support law enforcement efforts. The integration of traditional Sherpa conservation practices with modern technologies has bolstered compliance and accountability. The Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC), supported by the Nepal Army, enforces anti-poaching laws, monitors illegal activities, and prevents wildlife crime, particularly in high-altitude and remote areas (DNPWC, 2024; UNESCO, 2024).

The 2016-2020 Management Plan acknowledges that the earlier plan could not be fully implemented due to budget constraints, which clearly suggests a lack of financial sustainability. The Plan indicates a budget requirement of US$6.5 million, including US$1.8 million for the buffer zone management requirements, and, while it notes that up to 50% of revenue generated by the Park can be applied to conservation and socio-economic development of the buffer zone, it is not possible to determine the anticipated source of the US$6.5 million (DNPWC, 2016). Funding of actions under the Management Plan are highly dependent on tourism revenue. The latest periodic report states that the available budget is acceptable but could be further improved to fully meet the management needs (State Party of Nepal, 2023). The development of a comprehensive management plan is underway, including a section on sustainable financing. Furthermore, there are enhanced efforts on improving coordination and cooperation with different conservation partners and local and provincial governments for funding in the plan implementation (State Party of Nepal, 2023).

Staff capacity, training, and development at Sagarmatha National Park (SNP) remain areas of concern despite some progress. As of the 2024 State of Conservation Report, SNP employs 67 staff members, primarily game scouts stationed across ten ranger posts, supported by 250 Nepalese Army personnel for law enforcement (State Party of Nepal, 2024). However, staff turnover is high, and the number of personnel is insufficient to effectively manage the park’s growing challenges, particularly in tourism regulation and climate change adaptation. Training and capacity-building initiatives are prioritised in the 2016–2020 Management Plan, but implementation has been slow, with limited progress reported in the 2024 update. The lack of Sherpa representation among staff (only one Sherpa staff member as of 2013) further highlights the need for culturally inclusive recruitment and training programs. While the park has initiated some capacity-building activities, such as the establishment of a Tourism and Conservation Education Unit, these efforts are not yet fully operational or integrated into daily management practices. Strengthening staff capacity, enhancing training programs, and ensuring equitable representation of local communities are critical to addressing the park’s complex conservation and tourism management needs (DNPWC, 2016; State Party of Nepal, 2024).

The education and interpretation programs at Sagarmatha National Park (SNP) have been instrumental in raising awareness about biodiversity conservation and sustainable tourism among local communities and visitors. According to the SNP management plan (2016-2020), these programs aim to enhance environmental education, promote traditional Sherpa culture, and foster community involvement in conservation efforts. Recent data from the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC) Nepal highlights the integration of indigenous knowledge systems, particularly through programs that engage the Sherpa community in conservation activities, ensuring their cultural practices are respected and preserved. The Free, Prior, and Informed Consent (FPIC) principle has been increasingly emphasized in SNP's initiatives, ensuring that indigenous communities are actively involved in decision-making processes related to park management. Nevertheless, education and awareness programmes could be further improved (State Party of Nepal, 2023). The Management Plan includes a provision to establish a “Tourism and Conservation Education Unit” with dedicated staff to look after tourism and interpretation-related activities. However, no update on this action is available.

According to the SNP management plan (2016-2020), tourism is a key driver of the local economy, contributing significantly to the livelihoods of the Sherpa community. However, the rapid growth in tourist numbers, particularly before the COVID-19 pandemic, posed challenges such as environmental degradation, waste management issues, and pressure on fragile ecosystems (Bhatta et al., 2022). The Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC) reported that SNP received 57,289 tourists in 2018-2019, with peaks during the spring and autumn seasons (DNPWC, 2019). However, the COVID-19 pandemic caused a drastic decline in tourist numbers, with only 32,636 visitors in 2020, a 56% drop compared to the previous year (DNPWC, 2020). Post-pandemic, there has been a recovery in tourist flow, with both local and foreign tourists returning. The park has implemented measures to manage tourism sustainably, including stricter regulations on waste disposal, promoting eco-friendly practices, and involving local communities in conservation efforts. Despite these efforts, challenges such as unregulated tourism, climate change impacts, and the need for better infrastructure remain. Continued collaboration between park authorities, local communities, and tourism operators is essential to achieving these goals.

Sagarmatha National Park (SNP), a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is a key focus of Nepal's conservation efforts, balancing tourism-driven economic benefits with biodiversity protection. SNP, home to Mount Everest, attracts over 57,000 visitors annually (MoCTCA, 2020), generating significant revenue, particularly from mountaineering, which contributed USD 4.05 million in 2019 (Dahal, 2021). The park's management plan emphasizes community involvement, with local Sherpa communities benefiting from tourism-related activities such as guiding, portering, and lodge operations. However, challenges such as overcrowding, trail degradation, and waste management persist, particularly along the Everest Base Camp trail (SNP Office, 2016). The Buffer Zone program, which reinvests park revenues into community development, has helped mitigate some conflicts, but benefits remain unevenly distributed, favoring communities along main trekking routes (Dahal, 2021). Climate change further exacerbates sustainability challenges, impacting snow-based tourism and altering ecosystems. While SNP has made strides in promoting sustainable tourism, continued efforts to address overcrowding, waste management, and equitable benefit-sharing are crucial for long-term conservation and sustainable use. The integration of stricter visitor management policies and enhanced community participation will be essential to ensuring the park's ecological and socio-economic sustainability (DNPWC, 2020).

The Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC), in collaboration with the Nepal Army, plays a pivotal role in monitoring activities, including anti-poaching operations, wildlife crime control, and the prevention of illegal trade, particularly of high-value species like the snow leopard and red panda (DNPWC, 2020; Dahal, 2021). The Nepal Army's presence in SNP is essential for enforcing conservation laws and maintaining security, especially in remote and high-altitude areas. The park's management plan (2016-2020) emphasises regular monitoring of key indicators such as wildlife populations, trail conditions, and waste management, with a focus on mitigating the impacts of tourism (SNP Office, 2016). However, challenges such as limited resources, inadequate infrastructure, and the effects of climate change hinder comprehensive monitoring efforts. Despite these challenges, the integration of community-based monitoring and scientific research has improved data collection and conservation outcomes. Strengthening monitoring systems, particularly through enhanced technological tools and increased collaboration with local communities, will be crucial for ensuring the long-term sustainability of SNP's ecosystems and cultural heritage (DNPWC, 2024; SNP Office, 2016).

Research in Sagarmatha National Park (SNP) is a cornerstone of its conservation strategy, providing critical insights into its unique biodiversity, particularly in the face of climate change and escalating tourism pressures. Recent advancements in genetic research, such as the 2019 National Geographic and Rolex Perpetual Planet Expedition, have led to groundbreaking discoveries, including the first recorded presence of the Pallas's cat (Otocolobus manul) in SNP (Seimon et al., 2022). This finding not only expands the known range of this rare and elusive species but also underscores the importance of continued scientific exploration in high-altitude, remote regions. The Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC) has been instrumental in supporting such research initiatives, which are vital for shaping effective conservation strategies and management plans (DNPWC, 2024). The revised Management Plan (2016-2020) for SNP integrates research into its core objectives, focusing on monitoring climate change impacts, biodiversity, and tourism pressures while also incorporating provisions for zonation and tourism management to ensure that research findings directly inform policy and operational decisions (SNP Office, 2016). In response to the unique challenges posed by the Himalayan environment, the DNPWC has introduced new policies to promote climate-resilient research and adaptive management strategies, aimed at enhancing the park's capacity to monitor and mitigate the impacts of climate change on its ecosystems and local communities (DNPWC, 2024). Overall, the integration of robust research into SNP's management framework is indispensable for ensuring the long-term conservation of its unique ecosystems and species while also addressing the complex interplay of environmental and anthropogenic factors in this iconic World Heritage Site.

The management system of Sagarmatha National Park (SNP) is a robust and well-structured framework that aligns with the principles outlined in Managing Cultural World Heritage, encompassing a legal framework, institutional structure, and resource allocation to effectively address both internal and external threats. At its core, the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC) serves as the central institution, providing organizational direction and decision-making, while the Nepal Army plays a critical role in enforcement efforts, particularly in monitoring illegal activities, preventing wildlife crime, and conducting anti-poaching operations in the park's high-altitude and remote areas (DNPWC, 2024; State Party of Nepal, 2024). The revised Management Plan (2016-2020) and soon the updated management plan forms the backbone of SNP's governance, integrating zonation strategies, tourism management protocols, and climate adaptation measures to mitigate external pressures such as unregulated tourism, infrastructure development, and the impacts of climate change (SNP, 2016).
The legal framework, anchored by the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act (1973) and its amendments, clearly defines the park's conservation objectives and provides the authority for its management. Complementing this, the establishment of Buffer Zone Management Committees ensures active community participation in conservation efforts, addressing external threats like resource extraction and encroachment through collaborative governance (DNPWC, 2024). However, it is concerning that a 2024 amendment of wildlife legislation seems to allow the construction of hydropower and tourism resorts in national parks.

The management system also incorporates advanced monitoring tools, such as the Visitor Tracking System, to regulate tourist activities and minimize environmental impacts, while partnerships with organizations like the Sagarmatha Pollution Control Committee (SPCC) effectively tackle waste management challenges arising from tourism (State of Conservation Report, 2024). Furthermore, the DNPWC has implemented policies to promote climate-resilient infrastructure and alternative energy sources, reducing dependency on firewood and mitigating external threats to the park's ecosystems (DNPWC, 2024). Despite these comprehensive efforts, challenges such as hydropower development in buffer zones and the illegal trade of high-value species like the snow leopard and red panda persist, necessitating continued vigilance and adaptive management strategies.

The management system and governance of Sagarmatha National Park (SNP) effectively address internal threats through an integrated approach combining legal frameworks, institutional coordination, and active community engagement. The Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC), with the support of the Nepal Army, enforces anti-poaching laws, monitors illegal activities, and prevents wildlife crime, particularly in the park's remote and high-altitude areas (DNPWC, 2024; UNESCO, 2024). The Management Plan (2016-2020) provides a strategic framework to tackle internal challenges such as unregulated tourism, habitat degradation, and waste management. However, the updated management plan is still not available. Key measures include zonation strategies, tourism management protocols, and climate adaptation initiatives designed to mitigate environmental pressures (SNP Office, 2016). Advanced tools like the Visitor Tracking System regulate tourist activities, minimizing ecological impacts, while collaborations with the Sagarmatha Pollution Control Committee (SPCC) have improved waste management and reduced pollution within the park (UNESCO, 2024). Additionally, policies promoting alternative energy sources, such as solar power, aim to reduce dependence on firewood, curbing deforestation and habitat destruction. Buffer Zone Management Committees play a critical role in engaging local communities, fostering a sense of shared responsibility for conservation efforts and improving park management outcomes (DNPWC, 2024). However, ongoing challenges, including trail degradation, littering along trekking routes, and human-wildlife conflicts, underscore the need for adaptive management strategies and increased resource allocation. As highlighted by Aryal et al. (2022), community-based governance and multi-stakeholder collaboration are essential for achieving long-term sustainability in protected areas. Overall, SNP’s management system demonstrates a robust and adaptive governance structure that effectively addresses internal threats to conserve the park’s unique biodiversity and cultural heritage but further improvements are needed.