Sundarbans National Park

Country
India
Inscribed in
1987
Criteria
(ix)
(x)
The conservation outlook for this site has been assessed as "significant concern" in the latest assessment cycle. Explore the Conservation Outlook Assessment for the site below. You have the option to access the summary, or the detailed assessment.
The Sundarbans covers 10,000 km2of land and water (more than half of it in India, the rest in Bangladesh) in the Ganges delta. It contains the world's largest area of mangrove forests. A number of rare or endangered species live in the park, including tigers, aquatic mammals, birds and reptiles. © UNESCO
© Jim Thorsell
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Summary

2025 Conservation Outlook

Finalised on
11 Oct 2025
Significant concern
While the site’s biodiversity remains largely intact, the ongoing and increasing pressures from climate change, habitat degradation, and human activities are creating significant challenges. The rare and threatened reptile populations are largely of low concern, but the conservation of avifauna, aquatic mammals and the degradation of floral diversity—particularly the globally endangered Sundri mangrove species (Heritiera fomes)—continue to be major issues. These concerns are exacerbated by severe impacts from sea-level rise, hydrological alterations, and coastal erosion, which threaten the integrity of the park's ecosystems. Despite these challenges, there have been positive outcomes from conservation programs, including successful breeding initiatives for species such as the estuarine crocodile and northern river terrapin, and efforts to reduce human-wildlife conflict. However, the effectiveness of these efforts is at risk due to inadequate funding, capacity constraints, and insufficient enforcement of protection measures. If these issues are not addressed, maintaining the site's values under increasing pressures from climate change, population growth, and illegal activities will become increasingly difficult. The management framework in place, supported by the West Bengal Forest Department and the Department of Sundarban Affairs, has been largely effective, but more resources and better coordination are needed. Transboundary cooperation with Bangladesh has been a positive development, and more frequent coordination meetings between authorities in both countries will be crucial for developing regional strategies for climate change adaptation. The management of the Sundarbans National Park is progressing, but enhanced long-term funding, capacity building, and policy action will be essential to ensure its long-term resilience. Immediate attention to key concerns is required to prevent further degradation and secure the future of the park’s exceptional biodiversity.

Current state and trend of VALUES

High Concern
The Sundarbans continues to hold its status as the largest continuous mangrove forest globally, but it has experienced significant degradation, now occupying nearly half the area it once did in the late 1800s. The site’s ecological integrity is increasingly threatened by both natural and anthropogenic factors, including alterations to its hydrology and ecology. Processes vital to the Sundarbans, such as tidal inundation, siltation, sediment deposition, plant colonization, and delta formation, are under strain. Rising sea levels pose a severe and imminent risk, not only to the park's biodiversity but also to millions of people living in the surrounding region, signaling the possibility of future ecological and humanitarian crises. This ecological degradation shows no signs of abating, driven by ongoing population pressures and the impacts of climate change. New studies highlight increasing salinity, heavy metal contamination, and unsustainable resource extraction as major contributing factors. The population of the Bengal tiger, the site’s flagship species, has shown encouraging signs of recovery, with an estimated 101 individuals recorded in the Indian Sundarbans as of 2023 but with slight declines noted. The populations of key reptilian species, including the Northern river terrapin (Batagur baska), olive ridley turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea), and estuarine crocodile (Crocodylus porosus), remain relatively stable due to effective legal protections and successful breeding programs initiated by the West Bengal Forest Department and conservation partners. However, monitoring efforts for other mammal populations remain insufficient, and there is a lack of ecosystem-wide assessments to evaluate the cumulative impacts of environmental threats on the Outstanding Universal Value (OUV) of the site. Although current threats to the Sundarbans have not yet reached catastrophic levels, the growing number and intensity of pressures indicate that future resilience will depend heavily on sustainable management practices, increased capacity, and coordinated action across national and transboundary levels.

Overall THREATS

High Threat
The Sundarbans National Park is subject to a complex array of threats that impact both its aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. These threats include over-exploitation, hydrological changes, pollution, and poor fishing practices, which collectively threaten the site's biodiversity and ecological integrity. While the core areas of the park are relatively well-protected, the wider Sundarbans ecosystem and buffer zones remain vulnerable to pressures from illegal resource extraction, industrial runoff, and habitat fragmentation. Climate change presents a particularly severe risk, with rising sea levels, increasing cyclone intensity, and saltwater intrusion posing long-term dangers to the park’s ecosystem. The combination of salinity rise and nutrient depletion is leading to the gradual disappearance of salinity-sensitive species such as the Sundari tree (Heritiera fomes), resulting in a decline in forest cover and biodiversity. If left unaddressed, these cumulative threats could severely impact the site's OUV and compromise its role as a vital habitat for rare and endangered species such as the Bengal tiger, Irrawaddy dolphin, and estuarine crocodile. Immediate and sustained action through adaptive management, mangrove restoration, and community-based conservation is essential to mitigate these threats and ensure the long-term resilience of the Sundarbans.

Overall PROTECTION and MANAGEMENT

Mostly Effective
The effectiveness of protection and management at Sundarbans National Park is reflected in the positive trends in biodiversity conservation and mangrove restoration efforts. The fifth cycle of the Management Effectiveness Evaluation (MEE) 2023 highlights continued progress in managing the site’s core and buffer zones, with robust anti-poaching measures, tiger monitoring, and community-based conservation programs. According to the All India Tiger Estimation Report (2022), the Sundarbans Tiger Reserve supports 196 tigers, showcasing stable population growth despite the challenges posed by climate change and habitat fragmentation.The park’s core area is governed by the Tiger Conservation Plan (TCP), a 10-year management strategy that integrates species protection, mangrove ecosystem health, and human-wildlife conflict mitigation. The Department of Sundarban Affairs plays a critical role in coordinating conservation with regional development initiatives. The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) and West Bengal Forest Department report improved coordination between the Border Security Force (BSF) and the Forest Department, facilitating joint patrolling and surveillance along sensitive border regions. The site continues to receive adequate funding, although long/term security of funding remains of concern and staff shortages and logistical constraints continue to affect enforcement and monitoring in remote areas of the park.

Full assessment

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Description of values

The largest area of mangrove forest in the world

Criteria
(ix)
(x)
The wider Sunarbans, including the Sundarbans National Park, remains the largest area of mangrove forest in the world, covering approximately 10,000 square kilometers. This expansive forest is the only mangrove habitat in the world that is inhabited by the Bengal tiger. The landscape of the Sundarbans is constantly being reshaped by tidal action, with erosion processes more prominent along the estuaries and deposition processes along the banks of inner estuarine waterways, influenced by the accelerated discharge of silt. The Sundarbans continue to serve as a critical nursery for marine organisms and a vital buffer against cyclones and rising sea levels. However, the mangrove ecosystem is increasingly under threat due to climate change, including rising salinity levels and reduced freshwater flow from upstream projects. Despite these challenges, the Sundarbans continues to support a rich biodiversity and remains a vital ecological resource for the region (World Heritage Committee, 2012; Islam & Gnauck, 2008).

Rare and threatened terrestrial and aquatic mammals

Criterion
(x)
The Sundarbans provides the only remaining habitat in the lower Bengal Basin for several endangered faunal species. Thirty-one mammal species are recorded within the park (Gopal & Chauhan, 2006). The Royal Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) remains the flagship species of the area, being the only mangrove habitat in the world that supports a population of tigers. This population is currently estimated to number between 62 and 96 individuals (Jhala et al., 2016). The Royal Bengal tiger is classified as Endangered (EN) on the IUCN Red List. The park also supports two ungulate species, the wild boar (Sus scrofa) and the spotted deer (Axis axis), both of which are assessed as Least Concern (LC) (IUCN, 1987). The only primate in the park, the rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta), is also classified as Least Concern (LC).

Among the wild cats present, the jungle cat (Felis chaus) and the leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis) are both assessed as Least Concern (LC), while the fishing cat (Prionailurus viverrinus), classified as Endangered (EN), is found in the region (Gopal & Chauhan, 2006; IUCN, 2013). The Sundarbans is home to three species of otters, including the smooth-coated otter (Lutra perspicillata) and the oriental small-clawed otter (Aonyx cinerea), both assessed as Vulnerable (VU) (Gopal & Chauhan, 2006).

The area also supports highly threatened aquatic mammals, such as the Ganges river dolphin (Platanista gangetica), classified as Endangered (EN), and the Irrawaddy dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris), Vulnerable (VU). Other vulnerable species in the region include the Indo-Pacific finless porpoise (Neophocaena phocaenoides) and the Indo-Pacific hump-backed dolphin (Sousa chinensis), which are listed as Vulnerable (VU) and Near Threatened (NT), respectively (IUCN, 1987; UNEP-WCMC & IUCN, 2013a; IUCN, 2013). New records of the rare click beetles under the family Elateridae from Sundarbans (Ghosh et al., 2017) have also contributed to the growing understanding of the park’s rich biodiversity.

Rare and threatened birds

Criterion
(x)
The Sundarbans National Park supports a rich and diverse birdlife, with over 300 species recorded (IUCN, 1987; Chaudhuri & Choudhury, 1994; UNEP-WCMC & IUCN, 2013a). This includes 95 species of waterfowl, 38 species of raptors, nine species of kingfishers, as well as a variety of gulls, terns, woodpeckers, barbets, shrikes, drongos, mynahs, minivets, and babblers (Scott, 1989). Among the many species within the park, some are considered rare and threatened on a global scale. Notably, the white-rumped vulture (Gyps bengalensis), classified as Critically Endangered (CR), is one of the most significant conservation concerns (IUCN, 2013). Three other bird species found in the Sundarbans are assessed as Endangered (EN): the greater adjutant (Leptoptilos dubius), the masked finfoot (Heliopais personatus), and the white-bellied sea eagle (Haliaeetus leucogaster). Additionally, the magnificent Palla’s fish eagle (Haliaeetus leucoryphus) and the greater spotted eagle (Aquila clanga) are listed as Vulnerable (VU), while the brown-winged kingfisher (Pelargopsis amauroptera), black-headed ibis (Threskiornis melanocephalus), mangrove pitta (Pitta megarhyncha), and grey-headed fish eagle (Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus) are considered Near Threatened (NT) (IUCN, 2013). The diversity of these species highlights the park's ecological significance, both as a critical habitat for migratory birds and as a refuge for species facing significant threats from habitat loss, climate change, and human activities.

Rare and threatened reptiles

Criterion
(x)
The Sundarbans National Park is home to a diverse herpetofauna, with 55 documented species of reptiles and approximately 248 bird species (Sundarbans National Park, 2024). This includes an exceptional number of threatened reptiles and significant populations of the endemic northern river terrapin (Batagur baska), which was once believed to be extinct (World Heritage Committee, 2012).

Three species of monitor lizard are present, all of which are considered Near Threatened (NT) on the IUCN Red List (IUCN, 2013). The estuarine crocodile (Crocodylus porosus), classified as Least Concern (LC), persists in the site, with an estimated population of approximately 100 individuals (UNEP-WCMC & IUCN, 2013a). The mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris), listed as Vulnerable (VU), and the Critically Endangered (CR) gharial (Gavialis gangeticus), the most primitive living crocodile, are now locally extinct in the area, considered to be a result of overexploitation.

There are 18 recorded snake species, including the king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah), classified as Vulnerable (VU). Chelonids recorded within the site include four marine turtle species, all of which are globally threatened:

Olive ridley turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea): Vulnerable (VU)
Green turtle (Chelonia mydas): Endangered (EN)
Loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta): Endangered (EN)
Hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata): Critically Endangered (CR)
Freshwater aquatic turtles include the Indian flap-shelled turtle (Lissemys punctata), classified as Least Concern (LC), the Indian peacock softshell turtle (Nilssonia hurum), listed as Vulnerable (VU), and the northern river terrapin (Batagur baska), classified as Critically Endangered (CR) (IUCN, 2013).

Conservation efforts are ongoing to protect these species, including habitat restoration and anti-poaching measures. The northern river terrapin has been the focus of successful breeding programs, leading to a thriving population of 565 individuals in breeding centers and an estimated worldwide population of 800 as of 2024 (Wikipedia, 2024).

Rare and threatened flora

Criterion
(x)
The Sundarbans National Park harbors a unique and rich mangrove ecosystem, comprising approximately 78 species of mangroves, making it one of the most diverse mangrove forests globally (Sanyal et al., 2008). The Sundri (Heritiera fomes) is the most dominant mangrove species in the Sundarbans, constituting about 70% of the trees in the area (Wikipedia, 2024).

Heritiera fomes is classified as Endangered (EN) on the IUCN Red List due to its restricted distribution and threats from over-harvesting, water diversions in the Ganges Basin, fluctuations in salinity, and diseases like top dying disease (IUCN, 2010; Wikipedia, 2024). While it is listed as Endangered (EN) globally, it may qualify as Critically Endangered (CR) within India due to rapid population declines. However, no authenticated updated status of natural populations of Heritiera fomes in the Indian Sundarbans is available at this moment.

Conservation efforts are essential to protect this species and its habitat, addressing threats such as over-exploitation, habitat degradation, and climate change impacts.
Significant Migratory Bird Habitat
The Sundarbans serves as an important stopover and breeding ground for migratory birds along the East Asian-Australasian Flyway, one of the most important bird migration routes in the world. The park supports large populations of migratory species that rely on the wetland and mangrove ecosystems of the Sundarbans for nesting, feeding, and resting. The role of the park is crucial for maintaining the overall biodiversity of the region, as it provides breeding grounds, nesting sites, and feeding areas for numerous migratory species, including those of global conservation concern. The seasonal migration patterns of these birds highlight the critical role of the Sundarbans in supporting migratory bird populations, ensuring the connectivity of important habitats across vast distances. This role is vital for the region’s biodiversity and the health of bird species that rely on these habitats.
Highly Rich Marine Fauna
The Sundarbans’ tidal waters support a rich aquatic ecosystem with various species of fish, crustaceans, and marine invertebrates. The region serves as an important breeding and feeding ground for these aquatic species, including commercial fish species that support local economies. The biodiversity of these ecosystems plays a key role in maintaining the food web of the region, essential for the health of both terrestrial and marine species. The high diversity of aquatic life, including mollusks, fishes, and crustaceans, contributes to the overall health and resilience of the region’s ecosystem. The nursery habitats provided by these waters are critical for the breeding and feeding of juvenile marine species, which in turn sustain local fisheries and support the livelihoods of local communities. The interconnected ecosystems that link aquatic and terrestrial biodiversity help maintain a balance within the ecosystem.
Historical and Cultural Significance for Local Communities
The Sundarbans holds deep cultural and historical significance for the Bengali people, intertwined with myths, legends, and spiritual beliefs. The Bengal tiger is central to local folklore, often seen as a sacred protector of the forest (Chacraverti, 2014). The region also holds deep cultural and spiritual significance for both Hindus and Muslims. Central to the region's beliefs is Bonbibi, the "lady of the forest," a goddess worshipped as the protector of the forest and its inhabitants (Ghosh, 2008). Bonbibi is revered for guarding the people from the dangers of the Bengal tiger and ensuring the balance between nature and human life. Her cult, which forms an integral part of the region’s intangible heritage, reflects the deep connection between the people and the land (Jalais, 2010). Alongside Bonbibi, the myths of the Bengal tiger as a sacred guardian further highlight the intertwined relationship between cultural traditions and the natural environment of the Sundarbans (Jalais, 2005). These myths and beliefs underscore the spiritual and cultural significance of the park, which plays a central role in the daily lives and practices of local communities. In addition, the mangrove forest has been a source of traditional livelihoods for local communities for generations, through activities like fishing, honey collection, and the extraction of timber and medicinal plants (Jamal et al., 2022). These practices are deeply embedded in the cultural heritage of the Sundarbans, influencing community practices and the cultural identity of the region.

Assessment information

High Threat
Despite ongoing conservation and management efforts, the Sundarbans National Park faces persistent and significant threats that continue to affect its ecological and biodiversity values. Over-exploitation of resources, altered hydrology, pollution, illegal fishing, poaching of high-value species, and extreme weather events remain key challenges. Although certain threats have diminished in intensity due to strict protection measures, the rising sea level driven by climate change remains a critical concern. This threatens to submerge large portions of the low-lying Sundarbans, leading to increased sediment salinity and nutrient depletion, which in turn results in mangrove degradation and shifts in species composition. Extreme weather events such as cyclones, tidal surges, and flooding further exacerbate these pressures, damaging habitats and affecting wildlife populations. The ongoing interaction between natural and anthropogenic factors continues to threaten the site’s Outstanding Universal Value (OUV), posing risks to the long-term conservation of both marine and terrestrial ecosystems.
Shipping Lanes
(Oil spills and resulting pollution)
High Threat
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
Outside site
Oil pollution is a serious threat, which is damaging to aquatic fauna and sea birds (Blower, 1985; Hussain & Acharya, 1994). Oil spills also damage mangrove ecology (Rahman et al., 2010) and cause mortality of mangrove seedlings (Hussain & Acharya, 1994), ultimately reducing the extent and quality of mangroves and the habitat they provide for both terrestrial and aquatic species. As a result of degradation of mangrove ecology, mangrove area and primary production, sedimentation, and deltaic and bank formation, are also influenced, compromising the on-going ecological processes of the site. Numerous commercial and tourist vessels pass through the Sundarbans daily, and oil leakages and spillages from these may infiltrate into the waters of the Sundarbans National Park through the interconnected nature of the Sundarbans delta and the Bay of Bengal. The vessels plying inside Sundarban often carry cargo like oil, fly-ash, cement, fertiliser etc. These vessels are potential disasters as was evidenced in the massive oil spillage in December 2014, when the ship Southern Star-7, ran aground and dumped 358,000 liters of Heavy Fuel Oil in the Sela River. Unfortunately, accidents such as these are frequent and require stringent legislative and penal provisions. Additionally, with Sundarban located at the estuarine phase of Ganga, Brahmaputra and Meghna, it becomes a veritable catchment area for the garbage of entire northern India and major parts of Bangladesh (Jhala et.al., 2016).
Water-borne & other effluent Pollution
(Siltation of inland rivers, irrigation and dams reducing freshwater flow into the mangroves, and discharge of domestic and industrial waste water)
Very High Threat
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
Outside site
The eastward migration of the Ganges due to the abandonment of some distributaries and past diversion of water and withdrawals for irrigation, has resulted in long-term ecological change in the Sundarbans. Up to 40% of the dry season flow of the Ganges was diverted in 1974 by the Farraka Barrage upstream in India. The consequences of dam creation and freshwater extraction serve to significantly degrade the health of the Sundarbans ecosystem (UNEP-WCMC & IUCN, 2013a). Increased salinity due to reduced flow of fresh water has resulted in recolonization of species, stunted growth in mangroves, and both qualitative and quantitative changes in the forest ecosystem. The long-term ecological impacts of pollution are uncertain, yet there is new research providing evidence that the past Holocene mangrove vegetation had exhibited far greater resilience to climate change (Hait and Behling, 2019). It is unlikely that similar rapid responses will occur in the future as the mangrove’s ability to respond is now compromised by large-scale anthropogenic activities in the hinterland as well the forested landscape (Hait and Behling, 2019). Species such as the Ganges river dolphin and Irrawaddy dolphin are also highly vulnerable to the decreasing freshwater flows (Smith et al., 2009). The city of Kolkata also acts as a source of huge amounts of metropolitan and industrial waste, resulting in toxic metal pollution of Sundarbans mangrove estuary (Roy et al., 2018).
Logging, Harvesting & Controlling Trees
(Wood harvesting)
Other targeted species names
Mangrove species especially Sundari (Heritiera fomes)
Low Threat
Outside site
Many thousands of local people rely on the Sundarbans for livelihoods and subsistence. An estimated 300,000 people depend on the forest to extract timber, fish, honey and other forest produce (UNEP-WCMC & IUCN, 2013a). While extractive activities are strictly banned within the Sundarbans National Park, illegal felling remains a minor problem in the Indian Sundarbans (UNEP-WCMC & IUCN, 2013a), and thus poses a minor threat to the overall system and the site’s values. The large contiguous patch of mangroves has been well protected over the years as there is a general ban on the felling of mangrove trees in all reserved forest buffer areas since 1990 and in Sundarbans National Park since its notification in 1984 (Mathur et al., 2019). However, the long porous international border with Bangladesh results in sporadic incidents of illicit felling of trees, illegal fishing, crab and honey collection that impacts the overall quality of the habitat (Mathur et al., 2019). Mangrove cover assessment for the State of West Bengal has indicated that there has been an overall decline of 200 ha of mangrove cover since 2017 (ISFR, 2019). The most valuable timber sources in the Sundarbans are from the Sundari tree (Heritiera fomes), which is a globally threatened species (assessed as Endangered (EN) on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species). Extracting these trees not only reduces their global population and distribution, but also reduces the floral diversity of the Sundarbans’ mangroves and results in shifts in the vegetation community composition (Rahman et al., 2010). Extraction of mangrove trees for these purposes also alters soil and sedimentation dynamics and can increase erosion, compromising the on-going ecological processes of the site.
Pathogens
(Decreased productivity from infection by mangrove-specific diseases – i.e. “top-dying”)
Low Threat
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
Outside site
The "top-dying" disease affects Sundari trees (Heritiera fomes), an endangered species in the Sundarbans mangrove ecosystem (IUCN, 2017). This disease causes die-back in these trees, impacting the productivity of the mangrove forest, critical for local biodiversity and ecosystem services (Islam & Wahab, 2005). The incidence of top-dying correlates with rising salinity levels and climate change factors, which stress mangroves (Iftekhar & Saenger, 2008). Despite the threat, a ban on legal felling of Sundari trees has reduced large-scale mortality from the disease. This management measure has mitigated widespread forest loss, though localized damage still threatens mangrove integrity (UNEP-WCMC & IUCN, 2013a). The disease primarily impacts the mangrove habitat, affecting marine fauna, migratory birds, and the forest’s climate change mitigation potential. The Sundarbans, a World Heritage Site, holds the largest contiguous mangrove forest globally and supports endangered species. Therefore, top-dying disease poses a significant threat to its ecological values, including its role in climate change mitigation and supporting rare flora and fauna (UNEP-WCMC & IUCN, 2013a; WWF-India, 2023).
Water-borne & other effluent Pollution
(Increased industrial effluent into Indian and Bangladeshi rivers, increases inorganic chemical loads in Sundarbans waters (oil spillages, heavy metals))
High Threat
Outside site
Several recent studies (Biswas et al., 2017; Roy et al., 2018) indicate that there are increased levels of sediment load, including soil organic carbon, pH, and salinity due to riverine introduction of pollutants including aquaculture runoff and industrial discharge. At least 700 tannery industries, both legal and illegal, located upstream, and several small and large-scale battery industries contribute significantly to heavy metal pollution, often exceeding toxicity thresholds (Roy et al., 2018). These inputs into the aquatic system serve to alter mangrove biogeochemistry, reducing mangrove area, affecting nutrient cycling and primary productivity (Biswas et al., 2017). Recent sediment core studies further confirm accumulation of metals such as arsenic, chromium, and lead in key mangrove zones, compromising root oxygenation and tree health (Mandal et al., 2019). In addition, long-term exposure to such pollutants has been shown to disrupt the reproductive success of aquatic fauna, including estuarine fish and mollusks, impacting food security and local livelihoods (Chowdhury et al., 2017). Sedimentation, deltaic and bank formation are also increasingly influenced, compromising the integrity of the on-going ecological processes of the site (Roy et al., 2018; Mandal et al., 2019).
Marine & Freshwater Aquaculture
(Shrimp/prawn aquaculture and wild shrimp fry harvesting)
High Threat
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Outside site
The fish and seafood business is the second largest income generation activity next to agriculture in Sundarbans. As a direct impact of climate change there are now more unproductive fish in the catch basket and the change of migratory patterns/routes of several commercially important fishes such as Hilsa (Tenualosa ilisha) have been observed (Mitra, 2019; Jana et al., 2019; Satpathy, 2019; Sundaray et al., 2019). Wild tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) fry collection has been banned, yet due to alternatives, local communities still engage in the practice, thereby destroying finfish and shellfish juveniles and also uprooting the mangrove seedlings (Chowdhury et al., 2017). Illegal fishing and crab collection continue to be significant threats, particularly in areas that serve as breeding grounds for rare and threatened aquatic species (WWF-India, 2023). Despite efforts to regulate these practices, local economic dependence on fishing and the high demand for crab meat drive illegal activities. This directly affects the population of species such as the Irrawaddy dolphin, Ganges river dolphin, and juvenile fish (Smith et al., 2009; IUCN, 2024). Destructive fishing methods also lead to habitat degradation. Large portions of mangrove areas are being cleared to create shrimp ponds, disrupting the natural hydrology and accelerating salinity intrusion into previously stable ecosystems (Hussain and Acharya, 1994; Rahman et al., 2010). This directly affects breeding grounds for fish, crabs, and mollusks, essential for the survival of migratory birds, estuarine crocodiles, and marine mammals. The introduction of antibiotics, pesticides, and nutrient runoff from shrimp farms pollutes the surrounding estuaries and waterways, reducing water quality and negatively impacting aquatic vegetation (Roy et al., 2018; Biswas et al., 2017). Species such as the Irrawaddy dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris) and mangrove-associated birds experience habitat degradation and reduced prey availability, further threatening their populations (Dhar and Mondal, 2023). Additionally, the conversion of mangroves weakens the region’s natural defenses against cyclones and storm surges, increasing erosion and flood risks for local communities (Ghosh and Bose, 2018). Soil degradation from intensive aquaculture practices also prevents natural mangrove regeneration, leading to long-term ecosystem instability (Dasgupta et al., 2019). Despite regulations, high economic incentives for shrimp farming drive illegal expansions into protected areas, underscoring the urgent need for community-based aquaculture programs and sustainable farming practices to mitigate environmental damage.
Shipping Lanes
(Commercial boat traffic)
Low Threat
Outside site
The usage of water channels as conduits for commercial boat traffic has increased manifold. Over 200 vessels ply every day through the Sela and Passur rivers, located in and near the Chandpai-Sarankhola range of the Bangladesh Sundarbans (Jhala et al., 2016). This continuous and heavy movement of vessels not only introduces risks of oil spills and underwater noise pollution but also contributes to sediment disturbance and erosion along the banks. The constant traffic also serves as a barrier to the natural movement of wildlife, especially aquatic mammals such as Irrawaddy dolphins and migratory fish species (Chowdhury et al., 2017). In the Indian Sundarbans, while commercial traffic is largely restricted, increasing tourism-related boat activity in the buffer zones adds further pressure, particularly through noise and light pollution that can disturb feeding and breeding behaviours of birds and mammals (WWF-India, 2023). Fragmentation of habitat corridors due to this traffic may also contribute to isolated and vulnerable populations of species such as the Bengal tiger.
Oil & Gas exploration/development
(Development of coal-based thermal power plant in Bangladesh)
High Threat
Outside site
The proposed 1320 MW coal-based Rampal thermal power plant lies within 14 km of the Bangladesh Sundarbans and is planned to be the country's largest. The plant, along with the proposed Special Economic Zone near Mongla Port, represents a bilateral collaboration between India and Bangladesh. Scientists warn that this large-scale industrial activity will have irreversible environmental impacts on the ecological integrity and estuarine mangrove habitat of the Sundarbans. Key concerns include increased air and water pollution, elevated thermal discharge, saline water intrusion, and the risk of coal ash disposal into sensitive tidal zones (Chowdhury, 2017; Jhala et al., 2016; Hassan et al., 2018). The cumulative impact of infrastructure development and port expansion could significantly alter the hydrology and sediment dynamics, thereby threatening the delicate balance of the delta ecosystem and endangering biodiversity on both sides of the international boundary.
Other Human Disturbances
(Human-wildlife conflict )
High Threat
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
Outside site
The Sundarbans biosphere reserve is a critical habitat for the Royal Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris), but increasing human-tiger conflict poses a significant threat to both the local population and the tiger population. Recent studies (Dhar and Mondal, 2023) reveal that population growth and land-use changes in the Sundarbans have led to greater human encroachment into tiger habitats. This has resulted in more frequent tiger attacks on villagers, as well as retaliatory killings of tigers by local communities. Key factors contributing to this conflict include: Deforestation and conversion of mangroves into arable land have disrupted tiger territories, forcing them closer to human settlements. Dependence on forest resources by local populations, such as honey collection, fishing, and wood harvesting, increases human movement into tiger zones, escalating the risk of encounters. Cyclones and natural disasters further displace tigers, driving them into villages in search of food. The buffer and outer-core areas of the Sundarbans have been identified as the most vulnerable regions for human-tiger conflict, with most casualties occurring in these zones. A significant proportion of victims are forest dwellers reliant on the mangrove forest for their livelihoods, highlighting the socio-economic dimension of this issue (Barik et al., 2023). Efforts by the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) and local conservation groups have reduced poaching and illegal felling, but human-tiger interactions remain a pressing concern. Similarly, instances of human-salt water crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) conflict have also increased with at least 127 reported incidents between 2000-2013 due to an increasing human population pressure and number of people entering the forest to collect products (Das and Jana, 2018). There is a critical need for: Enhanced surveillance and patrolling in buffer areas. Community awareness programs on tiger behavior and conservation. Implementation of early warning systems and relocation of vulnerable communities to reduce human-tiger interactions (NTCA, 2022).
Changes in Physical & Chemical Regimes, Changes in Temperature Regimes, Changes in Precipitation & Hydrological Regime
(Rising sea levels and climate change)
Very High Threat
Inside site
, Throughout(>50%)
Outside site
A 2024 IUCN report warns that over 50% of the world’s mangrove ecosystems are at risk of collapse by 2050, driven by sea-level rise and the increasing frequency of storm surges linked to climate change (IUCN, 2024). The biggest peril to this landscape, given the comparatively lower risk of direct habitat destruction by humans, is the rising sea level due to climate change, which threatens to submerge 96% of the landmass (Loucks et al., 2010; Jhala et al., 2016; Sen and Bhadury, 2017).
The average elevation of Sundarbans is around 7 masl and global warming and subsequent sea level rise thus threaten to submerge large portions of the area. From 1983–2003, annual sea level rise in the Bay of Bengal was 3.14 cm, which is well above the global average of 2.00 cm (UNEP-WCMC & IUCN, 2013a). The entire Sundarbans forest is also experiencing extensive coastal erosion and retreat, which is considered to be largely attributable to increased frequency of storm surges and other extreme natural events, rises in sea level and increased salinity. In the Indian Sundarbans, between 1969 and 2009, 21,025 ha has been lost, with 6,506 ha being lost in the past decade (Danda et al., 2011; Danda et al., 2019). This represents a potentially great loss of carbon storage (Rahman et al., 2010), and loss of habitat for biodiversity. Within the Indian Sundarbans, it is projected that the loss of area with sea-level rise for 12 of the most vulnerable islands is 3-32% (WWF-India, 2014).
With sea-level rise, increased salinity will result in ecological succession to more salt-tolerant species, reducing mangrove biodiversity. Threatened aquatic species such as the Ganges river dolphin and Irrawaddy dolphin have both been found to exhibit dependency for habitat characteristics associated with high freshwater flow, and as such are highly vulnerable to habitat loss from this threat (Smith et al., 2009). Climate change has also resulted in a scarcity of local vegetables and created uncertainty in agro-fishing livelihood resulting in malnutrition in at least 30% population of children (0–6 years) (Ghosh and Bose, 2018). Futuristic modelling under four climate-based scenarios has indicated continued loss of mud and tidal flats viz.-a-viz. expansion of river/water areas and a moderate loss of mangroves by 2030 (Dasgupta et al., 2019) and that by 2070 there will be no suitable tiger habitat remaining in the Bangladesh Sundarbans (Mukul et al., 2019). The compounding nature of salinity stress, forest degradation, and species loss underscores the urgent need for enhanced conservation interventions to strengthen ecosystem resilience, restore degraded areas, and address the root causes of climate vulnerability in the region.
Fishing, Harvesting & Controlling Aquatic Species
(Illegal fishing and crab harvesting)
Other targeted species names
Irrawaddy dolphin – Orcaella brevirostris, Ganges river dolphin – Platanista gangetica, Brown-winged kingfisher – Pelargopsis amauroptera, Mud crabs (Scylla serrata), Prawn larvae (Penaeus monodon), Mangrove red snapper (Lutjanus argentimaculatus)
High Threat
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
Illegal fishing and crab collection continue to be significant threats, particularly in areas that serve as breeding grounds for rare and threatened aquatic species. Despite efforts to regulate these practices, local economic dependence on fishing and the high demand for crab meat drive illegal activities. This directly affects the population of species such as the Irrawaddy dolphin, Ganges river dolphin, and juvenile fish. Destructive fishing methods also lead to habitat degradation.
Severe Weather Events
(Cyclones and Extreme Weather Events)
High Threat
Inside site
, Throughout(>50%)
Outside site
Cyclones and tidal waves normally cause some damage to the forest along the sea-face and result in considerable occasional mortality among spotted deer. The effects of the 2004 tsunami were long-lasting along the entire east coast of India (Ghosh et al., 2008). The region experienced seven major cyclones between 2007 and 2022, including Amphan (2020), Bulbul (2019), Aila (2009), and Yaas (2021), causing extensive destruction to mangroves, wildlife habitats, and human settlements (Bera et al., 2022; Ghosh & Mistri, 2023). Cyclone impacts include: Mangrove degradation from high winds and saltwater intrusion, disrupting the buffer capacity against coastal erosion (UNEP-WCMC & IUCN, 2013a). Embankment breaches and flooding that displace terrestrial wildlife like the Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris), forcing them into human settlements, escalating human-wildlife conflict (WWF-India, 2014). Salinity intrusion into agricultural land, leading to crop failures and livelihood loss for local populations (Mandal & Naskar, 2018). Erosion of breeding grounds for aquatic species such as the Ganges river dolphin (Platanista gangetica) and Irrawaddy dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris). A study by Ghosh and Mistri (2023) reveals that 18% of the population in the Matla–Bidya inter-estuarine area faces extreme vulnerability to cyclones, with 51% experiencing moderate to high vulnerability due to their reliance on natural resources.
Key Attributes Negatively Affected: Degradation of mangrove cover and loss of biodiversity. Increased coastal erosion and flooding due to reduced natural barriers. Displacement of apex predators such as tigers, leading to higher mortality rates. Habitat fragmentation for rare bird species, including the masked finfoot (Heliopais personatus) and brown-winged kingfisher (Pelargopsis amauroptera).
Garbage & Solid Waste
(Plastic Pollution and Marine Debris)
High Threat
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
The Indian Sundarbans has been declared a “No Plastic Zone” and all waste generated within the site is removed for either recycling or incineration, and staff (trained “Eco-guides”) ensure strict regulation and management of garbage generated within the site and educate tourists on nature and natural resources. However, population increases near river basins and attempts to modernize living conditions in coastal areas has meant large-scale production of garbage and fisheries waste into the Sundarbans waters (Rahman et al., 2009). Moreover, fishing activities, particularly shrimp fry fishing, are resulting in the entanglement of threatened aquatic faunal species within discarded or active nets (Ganges river dolphin and Irrawaddy dolphin), which may contribute to their global population declines (Smith et al., 2009), and compromising the biodiversity value of the site.
Moreover, plastic pollution and marine debris in the Sundarbans are driven by upstream waste from urban centers like Kolkata and Dhaka, accumulating in the mangrove forests and waterways. This pollution disrupts the feeding and breeding patterns of key species such as the Ganges river dolphin and Irrawaddy dolphin, causing entanglement and ingestion risks. Microplastics have been detected in sediment, water, and aquatic organisms in the Indian Sundarbans, indicating trophic transfer and bioaccumulation (Chakraborty et al., 2023). These infiltrate the food chain, threatening fish, crustaceans, and mollusks, essential to the local economy and biodiversity. After Cyclone Amphan (2020), more than 56 tons of plastic waste were deposited in the ecosystem, as documented by local NGOs and waste management authorities (Banerjee et al., 2021), highlighting the compounding effect of natural disasters and poor waste management. Plastic accumulation in mangrove roots reduces their ability to stabilize coastlines, leading to dieback, erosion, and increased vulnerability to cyclones and storm surges. Additionally, marine debris degrades nesting sites of migratory birds and diminishes prey availability. The overall degradation from plastic pollution threatens the Sundarbans' Outstanding Universal Value (OUV) and jeopardizes local livelihoods dependent on fishing and ecotourism. Urgent transboundary cooperation and strengthened regulatory frameworks, including the 2022 Plastic Waste Management (Amendment) Rules in India, are needed to mitigate this escalating threat (MoEFCC, 2022).
Mining & Quarrying
(Sand Mining and Dredging)
Low Threat
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
Sand mining and dredging are emerging threats in the Sundarbans, particularly along riverbanks and estuarine zones. Illegal extraction of sand, driven by construction demand and port expansion, accelerates coastal erosion and depletes sediment deposits essential for mangrove regeneration. This disrupts the natural sedimentation cycle crucial for sustaining mangrove forests and protecting low-lying areas from flooding and storm surges. Dredging activities to maintain navigational channels and expand ports along the Matla and Bidya rivers alter river flow patterns, increasing salinity intrusion and reducing the deposition of nutrient-rich sediments. This disruption has been shown to significantly reduce mangrove root stability and increase their vulnerability to cyclone damage and inundation (Mitra et al., 2020). This weakens mangrove root structures, heightens vulnerability to cyclones and tidal surges, and impacts the spawning and breeding grounds of aquatic species such as mud crabs, shrimps, and mollusks. Furthermore, dredging disturbs benthic ecosystems, displacing or killing juvenile fish and crustaceans that form the base of the marine food chain. According to Ghosh et al. (2022), dredging and channel deepening in the Indian Sundarbans have resulted in a measurable reduction of benthic biomass and larval fish density, particularly in core estuarine zones. This, in turn, reduces prey availability for apex predators like the Bengal tiger, estuarine crocodile, and birds of prey. Additionally, sediment disruption affects nesting sites of migratory birds, degrading the estuarine feeding grounds critical for species survival. If left unchecked, sand mining and dredging could exacerbate the loss of mangrove cover, increase coastal instability, and threaten the Outstanding Universal Value (OUV) of the Sundarbans.
Hunting, Collecting & Controlling Terrestrial Animals
(Illegal Wildlife Trade)
Other targeted species names
Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris), Fishing cat (Prionailurus viverrinus), Estuarine crocodile (Crocodylus porosus)
High Threat
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Outside site
Illegal wildlife trade poses a threat to the Sundarbans National Park, particularly to flagship species such as the Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris). Tiger skins, bones, and body parts are highly valued in illegal markets. However, poaching of tigers for sale on illegal markets has been reduced with effective management strategies (Mathur et al., 2019). The last unnatural death of one tiger due to snaring was reported in 2019 after a gap of almost four years. It can therefore be concluded that poaching is more opportunistic rather than intentional in the Sundarbans India side. In addition to tigers, reptiles like estuarine crocodiles and turtles, as well as rare birds of prey and migratory species, are trafficked for exotic pet markets, traditional medicine, and illegal meat markets. Fishing cats, pangolins, and freshwater turtles are frequently poached in this area, leading to ecological imbalance and trophic disruption (Dhar & Mondal, 2023). The increasing use of traditional snares and traps by poachers along forest fringes has resulted in non-target species mortality and accidental deaths of dolphins, crocodiles, and small mammals. Moreover, enforcement efforts are often hampered by the difficult terrain and dense vegetation of the mangrove forest, which allows illegal activities to go undetected (Jhala et al., 2016). Despite strong conservation measures, weak enforcement in remote areas and dense mangrove cover make monitoring difficult, allowing illegal activities to persist. The transboundary nature of the Sundarbans between India and Bangladesh complicates enforcement, as poachers often exploit porous borders to traffic wildlife. Cases of cross-border wildlife smuggling through the Sundarbans have been documented, highlighting enforcement challenges in shared habitats (Hassan et al., 2018). Illegal wildlife trade disrupts ecological processes by removing keystone species, threatening the park’s Outstanding Universal Value (OUV) and undermining the resilience of the entire mangrove ecosystem.
Residential Areas, Commercial & Industrial Areas
(Environmental migration and displacement)
High Threat
Outside site
Population pressure in the areas surrounding the Sundarbans is extremely high and historically such pressure has led to losses of mangrove forest area due to conversion of land to agriculture (Gopal & Chauhan, 2006). The Sundarban delta in India is home to more than 4.37 million people (2011), with a density of close to 1,000 persons/km² (or 100 ha) (Dasgupta and Shaw, 2015). Population pressure and the resulting increase in agricultural land, and of late aquaculture ponds, continues to threaten the integrity of the forest at the inland fringes in India. Sundarban in India is a part of the Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta comprised of 102 islands, of which 54 are inhabited islands (540,000 ha) and 48 are forested (420,000 ha) islands (Mistri, 2019). Recent research by Sarkar et al. (2019) shows that erosion across the Sundarban islands is more dominant than accretion. High incidents of interstate (49%) and inter-district (48%) migration from Sundarban has been observed primarily due to socio-economic factors of landlessness and uncertainty in agricultural production, and natural hazards such as cyclones only serve as an additional push (Mistri, 2019).
Gathering, Harvesting & Controlling Terrestrial Plants & Fungi
(Honey and wax collection)
Data Deficient
Outside site
Collection of honey in the forest during the summer months by villagers residing in the border areas of Bangladesh and local Indian villagers has been identified as a major threat (Mathur et al., 2019). An increasing number of people entering the forest has indirectly also led to increased human-animal conflict. It has been reported that in some cases, when honey collectors attempt to expel bees from nests with smoke, fire has spread and destroyed large areas of forest (Rahman et al., 2010). No updated peer-reviewed information has been found, though anecdotal sources suggest the practice continues in both India and Bangladesh.
Involvement of stakeholders and rightsholders, including indigenous peoples and local communities, in decision-making processes
Mostly Effective
The involvement of local communities in conservation initiatives is growing through community forest programs, eco-development initiatives, and alternative livelihoods. However, participation in high-level decision-making remains limited. Although awareness campaigns and conflict mitigation programs exist, the Sundarbans' communities, including fisherfolk and honey collectors, require greater representation in policy formulation and governance to ensure long-term sustainability (Chacraverti, 2020; Mathur et al., 2019).

Those managing the site, the West Bengal Ministry of Environment and Forests and Project Tiger, work directly with local communities in participatory management through Joint Forest Management and Eco-Development Committees. Eco-Development projects provide communities with assistance in irrigation, water infrastructure, jetties, advice on fishing and aquaculture, medical clinics and training and employment as tourist guides (Mile, 1997; UNESCO, 2002; West Bengal Forest Department, 2012; UNEP-WCMC & IUCN, 2013a). Participatory governance and alternative livelihood generation activities have been very successful in reducing antagonism between local communities and in the management agencies and maintaining the Outstanding Universal Value of the site (West Bengal Forest Department, 2012). Management activities and methodological implementations, such as nylon net fencing along the forest village interface to a stretch of 96 km, has been devised as a good management practice to create a psychological barrier against intruding tigers (Mathur et al., 2019). However, within the Protected Area, newer human-wildlife conflicts, especially with crocodiles, have increased as more people venture in to collect tiger prawns and crabs in swampy areas (Das and Jana, 2018).
Legal framework
Mostly Effective
The site is protected under the Wildlife Protection Act 1972 and its amendments, Indian Forest Act, 1927, Forest Conservation Act 1980, and Environment Protection Act 1986. The legal framework aligns with international obligations, including UNESCO World Heritage and Ramsar designations. These laws are being effectively implemented and zone regulations are all effectively enforced (UNEP-WCMC & IUCN, 2013a). Forest Guards follow an effective protection strategy in the field, and capacity for intelligence gathering to control poaching and illegal activities is regularly assessed and improved (West Bengal Forest Department, 2012). At the same time, the core area is remote and almost inaccessible to humans and the forest fringe has a high human-forest interface. Joint Forest management has been implemented for a few decades now, but it has yielded mixed results possibly due to the top-down retrofitted approach within a prohibitory preservationist environment (Dasgupta and Shaw, 2017b). Added to this is the complexity of governance and new acts, such as The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act 2006, which is yet to be implemented (Sen and Pattanaik, 2018).
Governance arrangements
Some Concern
The governance of Sundarbans National Park is managed through a dual structure involving the West Bengal Forest Department and the Department of Sundarban Affairs, Government of West Bengal. Established in January 1994, the Department of Sundarban Affairs was created to drive planning, coordination, and development efforts in the Sundarbans region, recognizing its ecological sensitivity and economic importance. The Sundarban Development Board operates under this department, ensuring the integration of conservation with local development initiatives. The park’s governance is legally grounded in the Wildlife Protection Act (1972) and the Forest Conservation Act (1980), providing a solid framework for biodiversity protection. The site’s designation as part of the Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve and Ramsar Site further reinforces governance mechanisms at the national and international levels. While the core governance framework is strong, challenges persist due to the transboundary nature of the Sundarbans, extending into Bangladesh. Limited cross-border cooperation complicates efforts to address poaching, illegal fishing, and resource extraction that occur along the shared ecosystem (Jhala et al., 2016; UNEP-WCMC & IUCN, 2013a). Additionally, while eco-development committees (EDCs) and local watch groups facilitate community engagement, the role of local communities in policy formulation and high-level governance remains limited. Strengthening the Department of Sundarban Affairs’ involvement in transboundary conservation initiatives and enhancing local participation in decision-making are critical to addressing governance gaps. Expanding stakeholder involvement at all levels will enhance the park’s governance effectiveness and contribute to the long-term conservation and sustainable management of the Sundarbans ecosystem.
Integration into local, regional and national planning systems (including sea/landscape connectivity)
Some Concern
The park is integrated into regional development plans and coastal management frameworks. However, land use changes and hydrological alterations upstream threaten the park’s connectivity. Efforts are ongoing to enhance landscape resilience, but conflicting economic activities nearby pose a risk (Gopal and Chauhan, 2006; Danda et al., 2011). The site has overlapping jurisdiction with Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve under the UNESCO-Man and Biosphere Program and parts of it have also been designated as a Ramsar site. To some extent, multiple designations may lead to 'work in silos' and conflicting objectives (e.g. the objective to create inviolate areas for tigers under the Tiger Reserve concept and the idea to support people's livelihood under the Man-and-Biosphere program). At the regional level, the transboundary aspect of Sundarbans as a 'single unit' needs to be codified and integrated into legislation and management practices. It is highly desirable that all the regulations and policies regarding climate change, environment, conservation, World Heritage and tourism, which need to apply for building the resilience of the Sundarbans, should be complied under a single coordinating strategy for conservation managers (Hassan et al., 2018).
Boundaries
Mostly Effective
The boundaries of Sundarbans National Park are well-defined and legally recognized, forming part of the core zone of the Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve and Ramsar Site. This provides a strong layer of protection for the park’s biodiversity and ecosystem. However, the buffer zones and peripheral areas experience ongoing pressure from illegal fishing, poaching, and resource extraction, which can indirectly affect the park’s core. The park’s porous transboundary boundary with Bangladesh complicates enforcement, as wildlife often crosses borders and illegal activities, such as logging and poaching, persist in areas adjacent to the protected zone. While surveillance and monitoring efforts are in place, challenges in remote, waterlogged areas create enforcement gaps, allowing sporadic encroachment and resource extraction. Strengthening boundary enforcement, particularly in the buffer zones, and enhancing transboundary cooperation with Bangladesh would help address these issues. Despite some external pressures, the current boundary framework effectively protects the core area, contributing to the preservation of the park’s Outstanding Universal Value (OUV) (Mathur et al., 2019; UNEP-WCMC & IUCN, 2013a).
Overlapping international designations
Mostly Effective
Sundarbans National Park has complete overlap with the Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve and the Sundarbans Wetland Complex (Ramsar Site). The entire area of the World Heritage site falls within the core zone of the biosphere reserve, ensuring the highest level of protection under both national and international conservation frameworks. Additionally, the park lies entirely within the Ramsar-designated wetlands, reinforcing its significance for mangrove conservation, marine biodiversity, and migratory bird habitats. This dual designation highlights the Sundarbans’ critical role in water regulation, carbon sequestration, and as a breeding ground for endangered species. It is reported that World Heritage site authorities occasionally communicate with focal points of the other designations (State Party of India, 2023). These overlapping designations provide multi-layered protection and promote integrated management approaches, enhancing the resilience and long-term conservation of the Sundarbans ecosystem.
Implementation of World Heritage Committee decisions and recommendations
Mostly Effective
Sundarbans National Park has made significant progress in addressing the World Heritage Committee’s recommendations, focusing on tiger conservation, mangrove restoration, and reducing human-wildlife conflict. Anti-poaching measures, community engagement, and ecotourism initiatives have been expanded, contributing to sustainable development and biodiversity protection. Additionally, efforts to improve climate resilience and disaster preparedness reflect the park’s response to increasing threats from sea-level rise and extreme weather events. While enforcement within the core zone is effective, challenges persist in addressing transboundary issues with Bangladesh and mitigating the impacts of upstream hydrological changes. The implementation of long-term climate adaptation strategies and hydrological restoration has been slower than anticipated. However, the overall alignment with World Heritage recommendations underscores the park’s commitment to preserving its Outstanding Universal Value (OUV) (IUCN, 2020; State Party of India, 2023).
Climate action
Some Concern
Sundarbans National Park faces severe climate threats from sea-level rise, cyclones, and salinity intrusion, as highlighted in the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report (2022) and the World Heritage Outlook 3 (IUCN, 2020). The park’s mangroves, which act as carbon sinks and storm buffers, are critical for climate resilience. The West Bengal Forest Department and Department of Sundarban Affairs have launched mangrove restoration and embankment reinforcement projects. However, Cyclone Amphan (2020) caused significant mangrove loss, underscoring the growing intensity of climate events. Reports from WWF-India (2021) emphasize the urgent need for expanded afforestation and community-driven adaptation programs. While efforts to improve climate resilience and disaster preparedness reflect the park’s response to increasing threats from sea-level rise and extreme weather events, vulnerabilities persist, and transboundary collaboration with Bangladesh remains limited. Strengthening regional climate action and scaling up mangrove protection are essential to mitigate future risks and protect the park’s Outstanding Universal Value (OUV).
Management plan and overall management system
Some Concern
Sundarbans National Park operates under a comprehensive management plan led by the West Bengal Forest Department in line with national conservation laws and international designations, including the Biosphere Reserve and Ramsar Site. The plan focuses on biodiversity conservation, mangrove protection, and tiger monitoring, with support from WWF-India, WTI, and the Sundarban Development Board. While the core zone benefits from strong protection, buffer zones face ongoing pressures from illegal activities and climate threats. Staff shortages and resource constraints hinder full implementation, but regular reviews help address emerging challenges. Expanding community engagement and transboundary cooperation with Bangladesh remains critical for long-term resilience. The management system effectively safeguards the site’s Outstanding Universal Value (OUV), with continued efforts to strengthen enforcement and community participation (Mathur et al., 2019).
Law enforcement
Mostly Effective
Law enforcement in Sundarbans National Park is active, with regular patrolling by the West Bengal Forest Department and anti-poaching units supported by WWF-India and the Wildlife Trust of India (WTI). Camera traps, drone surveillance, and GPS tracking are used to monitor tiger movements and detect illegal activities (WWF-India, 2021; WTI, 2020).

The National Park has a dedicated Protection Strategy. Patrols are carried out on a daily basis through boats. Data pertaining to every single patrol, such as the number of staff involved, their equipment, any wildlife or offences observed etc. is noted down in a format known as the Protection Monitoring Protocol (PMP). Meetings pertaining to PMPs and protection efforts are reviewed on a monthly basis, through meetings conducted by the senior officials. Recently, android phones containing the e-patrolling application "Hejje" have been provided to all the beats. This allows patrolling data to be entered and checked on a real-time basis, through databases maintained at the range level. In spite of the various challenges posed by the difficult and remote terrain and the presence of a porous international border, the efficacy of the protection regime in the National Park is demonstrated by the fact that no incidents of poaching of tigers or their prey have occurred in the past several years (State Party of India, 2023).

Although community forest watch groups and local engagement initiatives help mitigate some illegal activities, stronger transboundary cooperation and increased patrolling capacity are needed. There is a bilateral protocol for discussing all border issues between India and Bangladesh border security forces and the same can be extended for consultation between respective forest departments on matters relating to conservation and combatting illegal wildlife trade (Mathur et al., 2019). While core areas are relatively well-protected, improving surveillance, expanding ranger teams, and enhancing community participation in law enforcement will strengthen overall protection and safeguard the park’s Outstanding Universal Value (OUV).
Sustainable finance
Some Concern
The park relies heavily on government funding and external grants. Revenue from eco-tourism is growing, but long-term financial sustainability remains uncertain (WWF-India, 2021). Community-based tourism initiatives show promise but need scaling up.
Staff capacity, training and development
Some Concern
Staff at Sundarbans National Park receive continuous training and capacity-building programs facilitated by various government agencies, NGOs, and research institutions. These programs focus on wildlife monitoring, anti-poaching measures, biodiversity conservation, and climate resilience. The Wildlife Trust of India (WTI) conducts conflict mitigation training in collaboration with the Forest Department, addressing human-wildlife conflict, while WWF-India leads biodiversity monitoring, tiger conservation, and camera trap training to enhance field research skills. The Wildlife Conservation Trust (WCT) provides technical support and knowledge-sharing for biodiversity conservation and management, and MUKTI focuses on mangrove preservation, sustainable agriculture, and climate change adaptation. Additionally, the Sundarban Social Development Centre (SSDC) engages in mangrove plantation, disaster management, and community development programs involving park staff. These collaborative efforts have significantly improved staff proficiency in habitat restoration, tiger monitoring, and community-based conservation programs (WWF-India, 2021; WTI, 2020; MUKTI, 2019). However, staff shortages and logistical constraints continue to affect enforcement and monitoring in remote areas of the park. Expanding expertise in marine biodiversity, alongside developing technological skills such as drone surveillance and GIS mapping, remains a priority to address evolving threats. While existing training initiatives are effective, increasing the frequency of programs, addressing staff retention issues, and boosting field ranger capacity would further enhance the park’s ability to manage threats and protect its Outstanding Universal Value (OUV).
Education and interpretation programmes
Mostly Effective
Educational outreach and visitor awareness initiatives are active, but more investment in local community education programs and school engagement is required to foster long-term stewardship (IUCN, 2020; WWF-India, 2021). Refurbishment of the Mangrove Interpretation Centre (MIC) at Sajnekhali is being carried out (State Party of India, 2023).
Tourism and visitation management
Some Concern
Tourism in Sundarbans National Park is regulated through zoning, permits, and designated boat routes to minimize disturbance to wildlife and sensitive mangrove areas. Ecotourism initiatives provide economic benefits to local communities, promoting sustainable use of natural resources. However, the increasing influx of visitors, particularly during peak seasons, places pressure on the park’s ecosystems. Unregulated tourism in certain areas, coupled with inadequate waste management, contributes to pollution and habitat degradation. Additionally, disturbances to key species such as the Bengal tiger and migratory birds have been reported in areas frequently visited by tourists (WWF-India, 2021). While management efforts exist, including awareness campaigns and community-led tourism programs, enforcement and infrastructure improvements are required to ensure long-term sustainability. Balancing conservation goals with tourism growth remains a challenge, necessitating stricter visitor limits, enhanced monitoring, and improved ecotourism practices to mitigate the impacts on the park’s Outstanding Universal Value (OUV) (WTI, 2020).
Sustainable use
Some Concern
Sundarbans National Park supports sustainable livelihoods like fishing and honey collection, regulated by the West Bengal Forest Department and Department of Sundarban Affairs. Community programs and eco-development committees promote alternative livelihoods, but illegal fishing and logging persist, threatening biodiversity. Reports from WWF-India (2021) and IUCN (2020) highlight the need for stronger enforcement and expanded community engagement to balance resource use and conservation.
Monitoring
Mostly Effective
Monitoring at Sundarbans National Park effectively tracks key species like the Bengal tiger and Ganges river dolphin, alongside mangrove health and biodiversity. WWF-India and the West Bengal Forest Department lead efforts using camera traps, GIS mapping, and drone surveillance. Collaboration with WII, WTI, and WCT enhances capacity, but resource constraints and difficult terrain limit full coverage, particularly in aquatic ecosystems (WWF-India, 2021; WTI, 2020). Expanding monitoring to buffer zones and addressing threats like plastic pollution and salinity intrusion is essential. Greater community involvement would further strengthen conservation efforts and protect the park’s Outstanding Universal Value (OUV).
Research
Mostly Effective
Research in Sundarbans National Park focuses on biodiversity monitoring, tiger conservation, mangrove health, and climate resilience. Key contributions come from WWF-India, Wildlife Institute of India (WII), Zoological Survey of India (ZSI), and ICAR. Studies on tiger populations, dolphin habitats, and mangrove restoration are regularly published, informing management decisions (WWF-India, 2021; WII, 2020; ZSI, 2019). Despite strong research efforts, marine biodiversity and microplastic pollution require more attention, as noted in the IUCN World Heritage Outlook (2020). Expanding collaborative research and integrating local knowledge will strengthen conservation strategies and protect the park’s Outstanding Universal Value (OUV). According to the latest periodic report (State Party of India, 2023) more research on the potential impacts of climate change needs to be carried out; multidisciplinary ecological monitoring is being carried out in
coordination with WWF India; and capacity for climate resilient livelihoods is being developed.
Effectiveness of management system and governance in addressing threats outside the site
Some Concern
While management efforts are effective within the park, external threats such as upstream pollution, industrial activities, and hydrological changes continue to impact the site (Dasgupta et al., 2019; WWF-India, 2021).
Effectiveness of management system and governance in addressing threats inside the site
Mostly Effective
The management system is partially effective in reducing poaching, illegal fishing, and habitat degradation within the core zone, but challenges persist in the buffer zones (IUCN, 2020; WWF-India, 2021).
The effectiveness of protection and management at Sundarbans National Park is reflected in the positive trends in biodiversity conservation and mangrove restoration efforts. The fifth cycle of the Management Effectiveness Evaluation (MEE) 2023 highlights continued progress in managing the site’s core and buffer zones, with robust anti-poaching measures, tiger monitoring, and community-based conservation programs. According to the All India Tiger Estimation Report (2022), the Sundarbans Tiger Reserve supports 196 tigers, showcasing stable population growth despite the challenges posed by climate change and habitat fragmentation.The park’s core area is governed by the Tiger Conservation Plan (TCP), a 10-year management strategy that integrates species protection, mangrove ecosystem health, and human-wildlife conflict mitigation. The Department of Sundarban Affairs plays a critical role in coordinating conservation with regional development initiatives. The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) and West Bengal Forest Department report improved coordination between the Border Security Force (BSF) and the Forest Department, facilitating joint patrolling and surveillance along sensitive border regions. The site continues to receive adequate funding, although long/term security of funding remains of concern and staff shortages and logistical constraints continue to affect enforcement and monitoring in remote areas of the park.
Good practice examples
1. Nylon Net Fencing to Reduce Human-Tiger Conflict (WTI and NTCA, 2023):
A nylon net fencing project extending over 110 km along the forest-village interface has proven effective in reducing human-tiger conflict. This psychological barrier prevents tigers from straying into villages, safeguarding both human lives and wildlife. Initially covering 96 km (Mathur et al., 2019), the project’s expansion reflects its success and potential for replication in other tiger reserves facing similar conflict issues.

2. Mangrove Restoration for Climate Resilience (WWF-India and West Bengal Forest Department, 2023):
Since 2021, over 5,000 hectares of degraded mangrove forests have been restored to strengthen natural coastal buffers against cyclones and rising sea levels. This project plays a crucial role in carbon sequestration and mitigating the impacts of climate change, aligning with global climate action goals.

3. Community-Led Conservation and Livelihood Programs (WTI, 2022):
Local communities are engaged through eco-development committees (EDCs), focusing on sustainable livelihoods such as honey collection, eco-tourism, and sustainable fishing practices. These programs reduce reliance on forest resources, fostering community ownership of conservation initiatives.

4. Transboundary Tiger Monitoring (WWF-India and NTCA, 2022):
Joint tiger monitoring between India and Bangladesh is a notable transboundary conservation effort. This collaborative initiative helps in tracking tiger populations, preventing poaching, and preserving critical wildlife corridors across international borders.

5. Floating Health Clinics for Remote Communities (MUKTI and Sundarban Affairs Department, 2023):
A floating health clinic initiative launched in 2022 provides essential healthcare to isolated villages in the Sundarbans. By addressing local health needs, this initiative strengthens community ties to conservation efforts, reducing negative perceptions of park authorities.

These examples highlight adaptive management, community engagement, and ecosystem restoration as essential components of Sundarbans National Park’s conservation strategy, offering scalable solutions for other World Heritage sites facing similar challenges.

The largest area of mangrove forest in the world

High Concern
Trend
Deteriorating
The Sundarbans, the largest contiguous mangrove forest globally, remains critically important for climate resilience, biodiversity, and coastal protection. Despite its ecological significance, the region faces severe environmental degradation driven by climate change, erosion, sea-level rise, and reduced freshwater flow.

Between 2000 and 2020, approximately 110 km² of mangroves were lost within the Reserve Forest due to erosion, while 81 km² of mangrove plantations have been established in inhabited parts of the Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve to counterbalance the loss (Kumar et al., 2023). However, this reforestation occurs largely outside critical core zones, limiting its ecological impact on biodiversity, carbon sequestration, and habitat quality (WWF-India, 2023).

The health of 25% of the Sundarbans mangroves has shown deterioration over the past two decades, especially in sea-facing regions, due to increasing salinity intrusion, higher temperatures, and reduced freshwater flow (Mongabay-India, 2022). Additionally, between 1984 and 2018, the Sundarbans experienced a net land loss of 74.6 km², with erosion surpassing accretion, significantly altering the landscape and threatening key wildlife habitats (Sievers et al., 2020).

Historically, the Sundarbans covered nearly twice its current area in the late 1800s, but persistent erosion and Ganges River eastward migration have led to long-term ecological shifts (Rahman & Asaduzzaman, 2010). The diversion of 40% of the Ganges' dry season flow following the construction of the Farraka Barrage in 1974 has exacerbated saltwater intrusion and soil acidification, negatively impacting mangrove growth (UNEP-WCMC & IUCN, 2013a).

Cyclones Amphan (2020) and Yaas (2021) further accelerated mangrove degradation, with cyclone-driven storm surges leading to the loss of mangrove seedlings and critical habitat (Rodriguez et al., 2021). Coastal erosion, driven by rising sea levels and storm surges, continues to reshape the Sundarbans, diminishing its capacity to act as a natural barrier against extreme weather events (Cornforth et al., 2013).

Biodiversity is also under threat, with the Ganges river dolphin and Irrawaddy dolphin highly vulnerable to habitat loss due to reduced freshwater flow (Smith et al., 2009). The loss of mangroves not only threatens carbon sequestration but also reduces vital habitat for the Bengal tiger and other keystone species.

The Sundarbans' 7.2 million residents, split between India and Bangladesh, face livelihood insecurity due to land degradation and rain-fed agriculture dependence. Half of the population is landless, relying on subsistence fishing and forest resources (Danda et al., 2019). Industrial investment remains limited, as frequent cyclones and flooding pose high financial risks (Danda et al., 2019).

Given the persistent combination of natural and anthropogenic pressures, the overall condition of the Sundarbans' mangrove ecosystem is assessed as High Concern with a Deteriorating trend. Immediate action in the form of expanded mangrove restoration, transboundary conservation collaboration, and climate adaptation strategies is essential to mitigate further decline and secure the long-term resilience of this globally significant ecosystem.

Rare and threatened terrestrial and aquatic mammals

High Concern
Trend
Deteriorating
The Sundarbans, home to rare and threatened terrestrial and aquatic mammals, is facing increasing threats from habitat loss, poaching, pollution, and climate change. Despite conservation efforts, key species continue to decline, reflecting high concern for their survival. The Royal Bengal Tiger, an iconic species of the Sundarbans, is under pressure from habitat fragmentation, prey depletion, and poaching. As of 2023, the estimated tiger population in the Indian Sundarbans is around 101 individuals, showing a slight decline (NTCA, 2023). The tiger population faces additional risks from human-tiger conflict, rising sea levels, and reduced freshwater inflow (WWF-India, 2023).

The Ganges River Dolphin (Platanista gangetica), listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List, faces threats from salinity intrusion, water pollution, and entanglement in fishing gear. Recent surveys have reported a decline in their population due to habitat degradation caused by the Farakka Barrage and industrial effluents (Smith et al., 2022; IUCN, 2023). Similarly, the Irrawaddy Dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris), classified as Vulnerable, has experienced a 40% population reduction over the past decade due to fishing practices and habitat loss (Kumar et al., 2022; WWF, 2023).

The Fishing Cat (Prionailurus viverrinus), Endangered, is facing population declines due to shrinking wetland habitats, retaliatory killings, and prey loss (Sundarbans Biosphere Report, 2023). The Smooth-Coated Otter (Lutrogale perspicillata) is also at risk from poaching and habitat destruction. Studies show localized extinctions in some areas (Das et al., 2023).

The Sundarbans has witnessed the local extinction of several globally threatened species, including the Javan rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus), Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), and water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) (IUCN, 1987; UNEP-WCMC & IUCN, 2013). The Ganges River Dolphin may have been extirpated from parts of the Sundarbans due to human and climatic factors (Mitra and Chowdhury, 2018). While the Royal Bengal Tiger appears relatively stable, the overall biodiversity of the Sundarbans faces a deteriorating trend.

The decline of these species underscores the need for enhanced conservation measures, such as anti-poaching efforts, mangrove restoration, and transboundary cooperation between India and Bangladesh (IUCN, 2023). Immediate action is crucial to prevent further biodiversity loss and to safeguard the region’s unique ecosystems.

Rare and threatened birds

High Concern
Trend
Deteriorating
The Sundarbans National Park is home to over 250 bird species, including many that are globally threatened. Key species such as the Masked Finfoot (Heliopais personatus), classified as Endangered (EN), are increasingly vulnerable to habitat degradation caused by rising salinity, deforestation, and pollution (IUCN, 2023). The Greater Adjutant (Leptoptilos dubius), also Endangered (EN), relies heavily on the park’s wetlands, but habitat loss from altered hydrology and illegal activities continues to threaten its survival (WWF-India, 2023). The Brown-winged Kingfisher (Pelargopsis amauroptera), listed as Near Threatened (NT), faces significant population declines due to increasing salinity and loss of nesting sites (BirdLife International, 2023).

Migratory bird species such as the Curlew Sandpiper (Calidris ferruginea) and Lesser Sand Plover (Charadrius mongolus) rely on the Sundarbans as a critical stopover along the East Asia-Australasia Flyway. However, shrinking mudflats and increasing pollution have reduced the available feeding and resting grounds for these migratory populations (Sundarbans Biosphere Report, 2023). The White-rumped Vulture (Gyps bengalensis), categorized as Critically Endangered (CR), faces steep population declines due to poisoning and food scarcity, with the Sundarbans serving as one of its last refuges in India (BNHS, 2022).

However, birdwatching in the Sundarbans is often hindered by the park’s challenging terrain and limited visibility from noisy tourist boats. These boats, which frequently traverse key bird habitats, contribute to noise pollution, disrupting sensitive bird species and reducing breeding success, particularly for species like the Masked Finfoot and Brown-winged Kingfisher, which nest near quiet, undisturbed waterways (BNHS, 2023). Increased footfall and tourism activities also add to the pressure on fragile habitats, leading to greater disturbance during critical nesting and migratory periods. While birdwatching remains a key attraction for ecotourism in the Sundarbans, unregulated tourism poses a growing threat to the park’s avian biodiversity.

Overall, the population trends of several rare and threatened bird species indicate a deteriorating trend. Continued habitat degradation, driven by climate change, coastal erosion, and human disturbance, is exacerbating the threats to these avian populations, highlighting the high concern regarding the conservation status of bird species in the Sundarbans.

Rare and threatened reptiles

Low Concern
Trend
Stable
The Sundarbans continues to provide critical habitat for several globally threatened reptiles, contributing significantly to regional and global biodiversity. The estuarine crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) population has shown positive growth, with the most recent census by the West Bengal Forest Department estimating between 204 and 234 individuals, an increase from previous estimates of around 100 individuals (Chaudhuri, 2024). This upward trend reflects the success of captive breeding and reintroduction programs at the Bhagabatpur Crocodile Breeding Centre, which remain vital to maintaining population stability (West Bengal Forest Department, 2023).

Similarly, Northern river terrapins (Batagur baska), once considered functionally extinct in the wild, are benefiting from breeding initiatives at Sajnakhali, where successful hatching events have been recorded for several consecutive years (Turtle Survival Alliance, 2023). This has contributed to the species’ potential recovery, though their long-term survival remains precarious.

The king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah), classified as Vulnerable (VU), continues to thrive within the protected mangrove zones, with periodic sightings confirming stable population trends (IUCN, 2023). Additionally, marine turtles such as the olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea), green turtle (Chelonia mydas), and hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) use the coastal regions for nesting, with conservation efforts focusing on habitat protection and nest monitoring (Das and Jana, 2023).

Despite these successes, human-crocodile conflict remains an issue, although incident rates have stabilized in recent years due to mitigation efforts, such as reinforced embankments and community awareness programs (Das and Jana, 2023). Conservation measures have mitigated significant population declines, contributing to the Stable trend of reptile populations in the Sundarbans.

Rare and threatened flora

High Concern
Trend
Deteriorating
The Sundari tree (Heritiera fomes), a keystone species in the Sundarbans mangrove ecosystem, continues to experience significant population declines. Studies indicate that approximately 63% of the trees in the Sundarbans are Heritiera fomes, with a substantial number affected by top-dying disease (Rahman, 2001). An inventory conducted in 1985 recorded 45 million diseased trees, nearly half with more than half their crown affected (Chaffey et al., 1985).

The "top-dying" disease remains a primary threat, causing dieback from the crown downward, leading to eventual tree mortality. The exact cause of this disease is not fully understood, but it is believed to result from stressful conditions, possibly due to increased concentrations of certain trace elements in the sediment (Hoque et al., 2006).

Increased salinity levels, resulting from reduced freshwater inflow and rising sea levels, have further stressed H. fomes populations. Studies have shown that elevated salinity adversely affects the growth and regeneration of Sundari trees, exacerbating their decline (Mukherjee, 2021).

The decline of H. fomes has led to a simplification of forest structure, reducing habitat complexity essential for various arboreal species. This poses a significant threat to the biodiversity, ecological integrity, and aesthetic values of the Sundarbans (Mukherjee, 2021).
Assessment of the current state and trend of World Heritage values
High Concern
Deteriorating
The Sundarbans continues to hold its status as the largest continuous mangrove forest globally, but it has experienced significant degradation, now occupying nearly half the area it once did in the late 1800s. The site’s ecological integrity is increasingly threatened by both natural and anthropogenic factors, including alterations to its hydrology and ecology. Processes vital to the Sundarbans, such as tidal inundation, siltation, sediment deposition, plant colonization, and delta formation, are under strain. Rising sea levels pose a severe and imminent risk, not only to the park's biodiversity but also to millions of people living in the surrounding region, signaling the possibility of future ecological and humanitarian crises. This ecological degradation shows no signs of abating, driven by ongoing population pressures and the impacts of climate change. New studies highlight increasing salinity, heavy metal contamination, and unsustainable resource extraction as major contributing factors. The population of the Bengal tiger, the site’s flagship species, has shown encouraging signs of recovery, with an estimated 101 individuals recorded in the Indian Sundarbans as of 2023 but with slight declines noted. The populations of key reptilian species, including the Northern river terrapin (Batagur baska), olive ridley turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea), and estuarine crocodile (Crocodylus porosus), remain relatively stable due to effective legal protections and successful breeding programs initiated by the West Bengal Forest Department and conservation partners. However, monitoring efforts for other mammal populations remain insufficient, and there is a lack of ecosystem-wide assessments to evaluate the cumulative impacts of environmental threats on the Outstanding Universal Value (OUV) of the site. Although current threats to the Sundarbans have not yet reached catastrophic levels, the growing number and intensity of pressures indicate that future resilience will depend heavily on sustainable management practices, increased capacity, and coordinated action across national and transboundary levels.
Assessment of the current state and trend of other important biodiversity values
Low Concern
Deteriorating
The Sundarbans' biodiversity values, particularly its role as a habitat for migratory birds and aquatic species, are benefiting from ongoing conservation efforts. Restoration projects, stricter enforcement of environmental regulations, and mangrove afforestation programs have improved habitat stability. However, persistent issues like pollution, illegal fishing, and rising salinity levels continue to degrade certain ecosystems. Despite active intervention, the long-term health of critical habitats for species such as the Curlew Sandpiper and Great Knot remains vulnerable, reflecting low concern but with a deteriorating trend.
Assessment of the current state and trend of other important values
High Concern
Deteriorating
The Sundarbans' cultural and medicinal plant resources remain integral to the livelihoods and traditions of local communities. However, the decline of key medicinal plants, particularly the Sundari tree (Heritiera fomes), due to disease, overharvesting, and habitat loss, poses high concern. The role of the Sundarbans in climate change mitigation is increasingly threatened by mangrove degradation and rising sea levels, contributing to deteriorating trends in its capacity to act as a carbon sink and buffer against extreme weather events. Without enhanced conservation measures, these values are at risk of further decline.

Additional information

Carbon sequestration
The Sundarbans mangrove ecosystem plays an essential role in climate change mitigation by acting as a carbon sink. Mangrove forests store enormous amounts of carbon, rivalling that of other tropical rainforests (Donato et al., 2011). As the world’s largest remaining mangrove forest, the Sundarbans provides huge carbon storage, and its loss would incur enormous emissions of carbon currently stored in sediments and plant biomass. The area thus has major climate change mitigation value globally, as well as locally, due to the enormous potential impact of climate change to the area and to India as a whole (Rahman et al., 2010).
Factors negatively affecting provision of this benefit
Climate change
Impact level - Moderate
Overexploitation
Impact level - Moderate
Habitat change
Impact level - Low
Coastal protection
Mangrove forests provide protection for inland areas and human populations from storm damage e.g. cyclones, and from flooding e.g. tidal surges, tsunamis and storms. The Sundarbans, and particularly green belt mangrove restoration, are thus extremely important for protecting settlements, infrastructure and biodiversity from such events.
Factors negatively affecting provision of this benefit
Climate change
Impact level - Moderate
Overexploitation
Impact level - Moderate
Soil stabilisation
The on-going geological processes of the Sundarbans includes shifting deltaic and bank formation. The Sundarbans mangrove trees serve to trap sediment and organic matter inputs, stabilizing the sediments and reducing organic matter inputs into the Bay of Bengal.
Factors negatively affecting provision of this benefit
Overexploitation
Impact level - Moderate
Fishing areas and conservation of fish stocks
The Sundarbans provide important spawning and nursery grounds for several fish species including some economically valuable species (IUCN, 1987; UNEP-WCMC & IUCN, 2013a). With increased aquaculture and fishing activities throughout the area, the protection of the WH site serves to sustain breeding and nursery areas for important fish species.
Sacred natural sites or landscapes
The Sundarbans is the largest remaining mangrove forest in the world.
Pollination
Sundarbans support large numbers of honey-bees, which produce great quantities of honey and wax, in turn providing livelihoods for local people outside the site (IUCN, 1987). These bees may also prove to be important for pollination of local crops, and to maintaining the Sundarbans forest diversity.
Outdoor recreation and tourism
Tourists are not allowed within the Sundarbans National Park without a permit. However, visitation within the buffer zone is high, with ~40,000 visitors reported in 2002 (UNESCO, 2002). The majority of these visitors engage in wildlife watching activities from lodges and from the water. Project Tiger and the West Bengal Forest Department have put resources into facilitating the development of eco-projects for local communities in the form of training for employment on tourist boats as guides (UNESCO, 2002).
Importance for research,
Contribution to education
Project Tiger and West Bengal Forest Department have developed an important Outreach programme for school and college students, government departments, corporate offices, police and military personnel. This programme disseminates conservation and awareness messages on the natural heritage of the Sundarbans and conservation of the site at regular intervals. School children are given tours to sensitize them to mangrove and tiger conservation.
Collection of medicinal resources for local use
The mangrove flora of the Sundarbans provides valuable medicinal plants that are integral to the traditional healthcare systems of the local communities. Species like Acanthus ilicifolius are used for various treatments, adding cultural and medicinal value to the ecosystem.
Collection of timber, e.g. fuelwood,
Sustainable extraction of materials (e.g. coral, shells, resin, rubber, grass, rattan, etc)
The park’s mangroves also support livelihoods through honey collection and timber harvesting, making the flora essential for both cultural practices and economic sustenance (Gopal & Chauhan, 2006).
Sundarbans National Park provides crucial environmental, economic, and social benefits. As the world's largest contiguous mangrove forest, the park plays a significant role in climate change mitigation through carbon sequestration, storing large amounts of carbon in plant biomass and sediments. Its continued preservation is vital for reducing carbon emissions and combating climate change. The park’s mangrove forests also protect surrounding regions from cyclones, storm surges, and flooding, safeguarding settlements, infrastructure, and biodiversity from extreme weather events.

The Sundarbans also supports a rich biodiversity, including rare and threatened species such as the Royal Bengal tiger, Ganges river dolphin, and Irrawaddy dolphin. These species are crucial for global conservation efforts and contribute to regional economic activities, particularly through eco-tourism and wildlife conservation programs. The park is a breeding ground for several important fish species, helping sustain fish stocks that benefit the local fishing industry and regional food security.

In addition to its ecological services, the Sundarbans contributes to the regional economy through tourism. As a UNESCO World Heritage site, it attracts tourists, generating revenue for local businesses such as hotels, boat tours, and guides. This tourism sector provides employment and supports sustainable livelihood options for local communities.

The Sundarbans also fosters regional cooperation between India and Bangladesh. Joint conservation efforts, research collaborations, and the sharing of management practices have strengthened ties between the two countries, enhancing their ability to address climate change challenges and protect shared ecosystems.

In summary, the Sundarbans National Park is essential for climate change mitigation, biodiversity conservation, economic development, and regional cooperation, offering significant environmental, social, and economic benefits to both local and broader regions.
№ Organization Brief description of Active Projects Website
1 Sundarban Tiger Reserve and Turtle Survival Alliance (TSA) The project focuses on the ex-situ conservation of Batagur baska, a critically endangered species, through the establishment of assurance colonies and artificial incubation efforts. With support from Turtle Survival Alliance, the project aims to reinstate and increase the population of Batagur baska in the Sundarbans region, emphasizing breeding success, habitat monitoring, and protection against anthropogenic and environmental threats.
https://sundarbantigerreserve.org/?tab=Bb
2 Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), West Bengal Forest Department, WWF-India, Wildlife Institute of India The Sundarbans Tiger Conservation Project is part of the national Project Tiger initiative by the Indian government. The project focuses on conserving the Royal Bengal tiger population in the Sundarbans through anti-poaching activities, continuous monitoring of tiger populations via camera traps, and improving their habitat. It also works on reducing human-wildlife conflict by creating buffer zones and providing alternative livelihoods to locals.
https://projecttiger.nic.in
3 EcoAct The Sundari Mangrove Restoration Project focuses on restoring degraded mangroves in India, with a strong emphasis on ecological restoration and sustainable management of mangrove ecosystems. The project aims to rehabilitate mangroves as a natural solution to combat climate change, enhance biodiversity, and provide livelihood opportunities to local communities through sustainable resource utilization.
https://eco-act.com/project/sundari-mangrove-restoration-india/
4 Department of Botany, West Bengal State University, Barasat, Kolkata Department of Biotechnology, Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India This project (2020-2025) builds upon a prior initiative (2013-2018) that developed a successful biorestoration technology for degraded mangroves along the shoreline of the Barchara River in the Ramganga area of the Patharpratima Block in the Indian Sundarbans. The earlier project restored 2.4 hectares of degraded mangroves, while the ongoing project aims to apply this technology to 40 hectares of degraded mangroves. The project employs site-specific approaches across differential degradation gradients to ensure ecological restoration.
https://dbtindia.gov.in/ https://wbsu.ac.in/web/department/botany/
5 Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, West Bengal Forest Department, UNESCO, Wildlife Institute of India This program focuses on conserving the rich biodiversity of the Sundarbans, especially its globally threatened species, by implementing science-based management practices. The project involves habitat restoration, species monitoring, and the improvement of ecological corridors to ensure wildlife movement. It also includes local community engagement in conservation activities, such as eco-tourism initiatives and sustainable livelihoods, to ensure that conservation efforts are aligned with the needs of local populations.
https://www.sundarbanaffairswb.in/home/page/sundarban_biosphere
6 Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) and International Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF) This project focuses on understanding the vulnerability of mangrove ecosystems in the Sundarbans to climate change. It involves setting up ecological monitoring sites across India's east coast, including the Sundarbans in West Bengal. The project aims to assess mangrove health, carbon stock, and biodiversity, while also building local capacity for mangrove conservation. By providing scientific data and insights, it supports sustainable management practices and policy-making for mangrove protection in the face of climate change.
https://www.cifor-icraf.org/mangrove-monitoring-india/projects/east-coast/sundarbans-west-bengal/
7 EarthDay.org This project aims to restore mangrove forests in the Sundarbans, a region crucial for climate resilience and biodiversity. By planting native mangrove species, the initiative seeks to combat deforestation, protect local wildlife habitats, and enhance the livelihoods of communities dependent on these ecosystems. The Canopy Project also focuses on mitigating the effects of climate change by increasing carbon sequestration and reducing the risks posed by rising sea levels and storm surges in this vulnerable region.
https://www.earthday.org/campaign/the-canopy-project-sundarbans/

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Indigenous Heritage values

The Sundarbans covers 10,000 km2of land and water (more than half of it in India, the rest in Bangladesh) in the Ganges delta. It contains the world's largest area of mangrove forests. A number of rare or endangered species live in the park, including tigers, aquatic mammals, birds and reptiles. © UNESCO

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