Chitwan National Park
Country
Nepal
Inscribed in
1984
Criteria
(vii)
(ix)
(x)
The conservation outlook for this site has been assessed as "significant concern" in the latest assessment cycle. Explore the Conservation Outlook Assessment for the site below. You have the option to access the summary, or the detailed assessment.
At the foot of the Himalayas, Chitwan is one of the few remaining undisturbed vestiges of the 'Terai' region, which formerly extended over the foothills of India and Nepal. It has a particularly rich flora and fauna. One of the last populations of single-horned Asiatic rhinoceros lives in the park, which is also one of the last refuges of the Bengal tiger. © UNESCO
Summary
2025 Conservation Outlook
Finalised on
11 Oct 2025
Significant concern
Current state and trend of VALUES
Low Concern
Overall THREATS
Overall PROTECTION and MANAGEMENT
Full assessment
Description of values
Landscapes of exceptional natural beauty and aesthetic importance
Criterion
(vii)
The spectacular landscape, covered with lush vegetation and the Himalayas as the backdrop makes the park an area of exceptional natural beauty. The forested hills and changing river landscapes serve to make Chitwan one of the most stunning and attractive parts of Nepal’s lowlands. Situated in a river valley basin and characterized by steep cliffs on the south-facing slopes and a mosaic of riverine forest and grasslands along the river banks of the natural landscape makes the property amongst the most visited tourist destination of its kind in the region.
Chitwan National Park, Nepal’s first national park, is renowned for its exceptional natural beauty and diverse landscapes, including dense Sal forests, expansive grasslands, rivers, wetlands, and the Churia Hills. These stunning landscapes not only enhance the park’s aesthetic appeal but also support rich biodiversity, making it a significant ecotourism destination.
Chitwan National Park, Nepal’s first national park, is renowned for its exceptional natural beauty and diverse landscapes, including dense Sal forests, expansive grasslands, rivers, wetlands, and the Churia Hills. These stunning landscapes not only enhance the park’s aesthetic appeal but also support rich biodiversity, making it a significant ecotourism destination.
Dramatic river views
Criterion
(vii)
The property includes the Narayani (Sapta Gandaki) river, the third-largest river in Nepal which originates in the high Himalayas and drains into the Bay of Bengal providing dramatic river views and scenery as well as the river terraces composed of layers of boulders and gravels (World Heritage Committee, 2012).
These rivers create breathtaking landscapes, especially during sunrise and sunset, when golden reflections illuminate the lush forests and wetlands. Acharya et al. (2018) emphasize their role in supporting rich biodiversity, including the endangered gharial crocodile and Gangetic dolphin, which add to their visual and ecological appeal.
These rivers create breathtaking landscapes, especially during sunrise and sunset, when golden reflections illuminate the lush forests and wetlands. Acharya et al. (2018) emphasize their role in supporting rich biodiversity, including the endangered gharial crocodile and Gangetic dolphin, which add to their visual and ecological appeal.
Biological processes of sal forest and associated communities
Criterion
(ix)
Constituting the largest and least disturbed example of sal forest and associated communities, Chitwan National Park is an outstanding example of biological evolution with a unique assemblage of native flora and fauna from the Siwalik and inner Terai ecosystems (World Heritage Committee, 2012).
These forests, covering about 70% of the park (Acharya et al., 2018), regulate the ecosystem by maintaining soil fertility, controlling water cycles, and providing habitat for key species such as deer, leopards, and various bird species. The associated riverine and grassland communities further enhance biodiversity by offering ecological niches for herbivores and predators (Thapa, 2013).
These forests, covering about 70% of the park (Acharya et al., 2018), regulate the ecosystem by maintaining soil fertility, controlling water cycles, and providing habitat for key species such as deer, leopards, and various bird species. The associated riverine and grassland communities further enhance biodiversity by offering ecological niches for herbivores and predators (Thapa, 2013).
Ongoing processes of last major surviving natural Terai ecosystems
Criterion
(ix)
The property includes the fragile Siwalik-hill ecosystem, covering some of the youngest examples of this as well as alluvial flood plains, representing examples of ongoing geological processes. The property is the last major surviving example of the natural ecosystems of the Terai and has witnessed minimal human impacts from the traditional resource dependency of people, particularly the indigenous Tharu community living in the buffer zone of the park (World Heritage Committee, 2012).
Greater One-horned Rhinoceros
Criterion
(x)
The combination of alluvial flood plains and riverine forest provides an excellent habitat for the Greater One-horned Rhinoceros and the property is home to the second largest population of this species in the world (World Heritage Committee, 2012).
The Greater One-horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) is a flagship species of Chitwan National Park (CNP), which, according to the 2021 census, is home to 694 individuals, representing the second-largest population globally after India's Kaziranga National Park. Conservation efforts have led to a steady increase in rhino numbers; however, challenges such as habitat loss, poaching, and natural disasters persist.
The Greater One-horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) is a flagship species of Chitwan National Park (CNP), which, according to the 2021 census, is home to 694 individuals, representing the second-largest population globally after India's Kaziranga National Park. Conservation efforts have led to a steady increase in rhino numbers; however, challenges such as habitat loss, poaching, and natural disasters persist.
Bengal Tiger
Criterion
(x)
It is a prime habitat for the Bengal Tiger and supports a viable source population of this endangered species (World Heritage Committee, 2012). The Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) in Chitwan National Park remains a keystone species and a focus of conservation efforts. Recent studies highlight stable tiger populations due to effective anti-poaching measures and habitat restoration (Thapa et al., 2022).
Biodiversity hotspot – terrestrial species
Criterion
(x)
Exceptionally high in species diversity, the park harbours 31% of mammals and 61% of birds, recorded in Nepal. Additionally, the park is famous for having one of the highest concentrations of birds in the world (over 350 species) and is recognized as one of the worlds’ biodiversity hotspots as designated by Conservation International and falls amongst WWFs’ 200 Global Eco-regions (World Heritage Committee, 2012).
Chitwan National Park is a biodiversity hotspot in the Terai Arc Landscape, hosting over 700 wildlife species, including endangered Bengal tigers (Panthera tigris tigris), one-horned rhinoceroses (Rhinoceros unicornis), and gharials (Gavialis gangeticus). Recent studies highlight CNP’s critical role in conserving megafauna, with tiger populations increasing by 18% since 2018 (DNPWC & WWF, 2022). Over 550 bird species have been recorded, though climate-induced shifts in migratory patterns are emerging concerns (Bhusal et al., 2024).
Chitwan National Park is a biodiversity hotspot in the Terai Arc Landscape, hosting over 700 wildlife species, including endangered Bengal tigers (Panthera tigris tigris), one-horned rhinoceroses (Rhinoceros unicornis), and gharials (Gavialis gangeticus). Recent studies highlight CNP’s critical role in conserving megafauna, with tiger populations increasing by 18% since 2018 (DNPWC & WWF, 2022). Over 550 bird species have been recorded, though climate-induced shifts in migratory patterns are emerging concerns (Bhusal et al., 2024).
Biodiversity hotspot – aquatic species
Criterion
(x)
Exceptionally high in species diversity, the park harbours 34% of amphibians and reptiles, and 65% of fishes recorded in Nepal (World Heritage Committee, 2012).
Chitwan National Park is a critical refuge for freshwater biodiversity, sustaining diverse aquatic ecosystems along the Rapti, Narayani, and Reu rivers. Recent studies document over 150 fish species, including endangered mahseer (Tor tor) and the critically endangered gharial (Gavialis gangeticus), whose nesting success has improved due to community-led riverbank protection (Thapa et al., 2023). The park’s oxbow lakes support vulnerable species like the marsh mugger (Crocodylus palustris) (Jha et al., 2023).
Chitwan National Park is a critical refuge for freshwater biodiversity, sustaining diverse aquatic ecosystems along the Rapti, Narayani, and Reu rivers. Recent studies document over 150 fish species, including endangered mahseer (Tor tor) and the critically endangered gharial (Gavialis gangeticus), whose nesting success has improved due to community-led riverbank protection (Thapa et al., 2023). The park’s oxbow lakes support vulnerable species like the marsh mugger (Crocodylus palustris) (Jha et al., 2023).
Indigenious People
The Indigenous Tharu and Bote communities, historically inhabiting the Chitwan region, maintain a deep cultural and spiritual connection to the park’s ecosystems. Recent studies highlight their concerns over restricted access to traditional resources, such as fishing, grazing, and medicinal plant collection, due to strict conservation policies (Rai et al., 2023). While community-based programs like buffer zone committees have improved participation, inequitable benefit-sharing and displacement risks persist (Gurung & Shrestha, 2024). Indigenous knowledge systems, including flood prediction and wildlife coexistence practices, are increasingly recognized for enhancing conservation outcomes (Neupane et al., 2023). Advocates call for integrating Indigenous voices into park management plans to align conservation goals with socio-cultural rights (Dhakal et al., 2024).
Assessment information
Chitwan National Park is subject to several high current threats. Flooding, such as the event in 2017, still represents a high level threat to the values of the site, particularly to large megafauna and grassland systems, which contribute significantly to the site's OUV. The rapidly increasing spread of invasive species is also proving to be challenging to manage. Despite the manual removal of multiple species such as Mikania micrantha in wetland habitats and increasing scientific research on these species, there appears to be little effective management of invasive species. Increasing infrastructure development projects, tourism-related pressures, unsustainable natural resource use and human-wildlife conflict are further current issues, which threaten the values of the site should levels of conflict become heightened to a level whereby grasslands are degraded or wildlife is persecuted as a result. Buffer zone management is key in addressing this threat. The alleged human rights abuses related to Chitwan National Park raised by the UN are of serious concern. They may not only exacerbated human-wildlife conflicts and reinforce negative attitudes towards wildlife conservation overall, but also represent critical disrespect towards the social, economic and cultural rights of local and indigenous communities. The threats are mostly intertwined e.g. increase housing developments and livestock grazing increasing human-wildlife conflict, and therefore require holistic and well-coordinated management.
Residential Areas, Recreation & Tourism Areas
(Infrastructure development in the buffer zone)
Outside site
Extensive housing development in the buffer zone of the park caused significant negative impact on the site’s values in the past (State Party of Nepal, 2011), including illegal settlements encroaching on and causing severe damage to valuable wildlife habitat in the buffer zone (for example at Ichhanagar, Sikaribas, and Bandarjhula), with no apparent coordination between Chitwan National Park Office and organisations providing development aid (IUCN, 2016).
However, the development has since been controlled compared to the previous assessment period. Development regulations have been improved upon also with mandatory EIA and IEE processes in the buffer and core areas as well as increased local participation in planning (IUCN Consultation, 2020; WWF, 2014). State of Conservation reports submitted by the State Party, state that the dismantling of houses in the park’s buffer zone area under the jurisdiction of Ayodhyapuri User Committee was undertaken by local authorities in accordance with the National Parks Wildlife Conservation Act 1973 and its subsequent regulations, with “no single intention to abuse the human rights of the local communities” (State Party of Nepal, 2022, 2024). However, alleged human rights abuses related to Chitwan National Park repeatedly raised in the UNESCO letter of 2020 and 2022, along with the report of the Independent Panel appointed by WWF (WWF, 2020), regarding the evictions and destruction of the homes of members of an Indigenous Chepang community by the park authority, and the death of a Chepang youth, raise significant concerns on the conformity of the park operations with a rights-based approach (UNESCO, 2021, 2023).
Subedi et al. (2023) demonstrate a 22% increase in human-tiger conflicts directly linked to habitat fragmentation from unplanned construction. Concurrently, hydrological research (K.C. et al., 2024) reveals significant groundwater depletion affecting critical wetland ecosystems and endangered species like gharials. While existing buffer zone policies theoretically balance conservation and development, implementation gaps have led to unsustainable land-use patterns (Pandey & Bhattarai, 2024). These findings collectively justify comprehensive assessment to reform housing policies and safeguard both biodiversity and sustainable development in this UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Some localised commercial development – although not increasing – has been reported to impact the values of the site in the past (State Party of Nepal, 2011) and may still be having an impact. Research by Thapa et al. (2023) demonstrates that expanding commercial and industrial areas in buffer zones have reduced habitat connectivity for endangered species like Bengal tigers by 18% since 2018. Meanwhile, residential and recreational development has encroached on critical wetlands, threatening high aquatic biodiversity (Gurung et al., 2024). Areas of exceptional natural beauty, which support both tourism and endemic species, face degradation from unregulated infrastructure (Bhusal et al., 2023). These pressures conflict with the park's status as a UNESCO site hosting over 700 species, including 68 that are threatened (DNPWC, 2024). Strategic zoning assessments are now critical to balance economic needs with conservation priorities in this biodiversity hotspot.
However, the development has since been controlled compared to the previous assessment period. Development regulations have been improved upon also with mandatory EIA and IEE processes in the buffer and core areas as well as increased local participation in planning (IUCN Consultation, 2020; WWF, 2014). State of Conservation reports submitted by the State Party, state that the dismantling of houses in the park’s buffer zone area under the jurisdiction of Ayodhyapuri User Committee was undertaken by local authorities in accordance with the National Parks Wildlife Conservation Act 1973 and its subsequent regulations, with “no single intention to abuse the human rights of the local communities” (State Party of Nepal, 2022, 2024). However, alleged human rights abuses related to Chitwan National Park repeatedly raised in the UNESCO letter of 2020 and 2022, along with the report of the Independent Panel appointed by WWF (WWF, 2020), regarding the evictions and destruction of the homes of members of an Indigenous Chepang community by the park authority, and the death of a Chepang youth, raise significant concerns on the conformity of the park operations with a rights-based approach (UNESCO, 2021, 2023).
Subedi et al. (2023) demonstrate a 22% increase in human-tiger conflicts directly linked to habitat fragmentation from unplanned construction. Concurrently, hydrological research (K.C. et al., 2024) reveals significant groundwater depletion affecting critical wetland ecosystems and endangered species like gharials. While existing buffer zone policies theoretically balance conservation and development, implementation gaps have led to unsustainable land-use patterns (Pandey & Bhattarai, 2024). These findings collectively justify comprehensive assessment to reform housing policies and safeguard both biodiversity and sustainable development in this UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Some localised commercial development – although not increasing – has been reported to impact the values of the site in the past (State Party of Nepal, 2011) and may still be having an impact. Research by Thapa et al. (2023) demonstrates that expanding commercial and industrial areas in buffer zones have reduced habitat connectivity for endangered species like Bengal tigers by 18% since 2018. Meanwhile, residential and recreational development has encroached on critical wetlands, threatening high aquatic biodiversity (Gurung et al., 2024). Areas of exceptional natural beauty, which support both tourism and endemic species, face degradation from unregulated infrastructure (Bhusal et al., 2023). These pressures conflict with the park's status as a UNESCO site hosting over 700 species, including 68 that are threatened (DNPWC, 2024). Strategic zoning assessments are now critical to balance economic needs with conservation priorities in this biodiversity hotspot.
Dams & Water Management/Use
(Damming of the Narayani river)
Outside site
The Gandak barrage in Narayani at Bhainsalotan has disrupted the migration and movements of aquatic animals such as dolphin, crocodile and fishes. The dam seriously threatens the survival of the endangered South Asian River Dolphin in CNP. Water management is also a potential threat outside the park (State Party of Nepal, 2011). Dialogue between Nepal and Indian authorities is required to resolve this threat and further studies are needed to assess the impact and its extent. Recent studies underscore the critical need to evaluate dam construction along the Narayani River due to its profound impacts on Chitwan National Park's aquatic biodiversity. Research by Jha et al. (2023) reveals that upstream dams have altered natural flow regimes, reducing sediment transport by 40% and threatening critical gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) nesting habitats. The river's unique assemblage of 152 native fish species, including endangered mahseer (Tor tor), faces population declines from disrupted migration routes and temperature changes (Thapa & Gurung, 2024). As a designated biodiversity hotspot, the park's floodplain ecosystems demonstrate exceptional evolutionary significance, with wetland-dependent species showing specialized adaptations now at risk (IUCN, 2023). These modifications conflict with the park's UNESCO designation, particularly its role in conserving globally important aquatic species (DNPWC, 2024). Comprehensive assessment of water management strategies is urgently needed to balance hydropower needs with the conservation of this irreplaceable fluvial ecosystem.
Identity/social cohesion/ changes in local population and community that result in negative impact
(Social change)
Outside site
Social change amongst local communities has had significant impact in the past (the desire of buffer zone communities to be on the national electricity grid outlined below is an example of changing desires and attitudes) (State Party of Nepal, 2011). The traditions, cultures and production systems of some indigenous and ethnic groups are rapidly changing due to the influx of foreign tourists and resettlement of some villages from their original place to elsewhere. A study to investigate the influence of changing social contexts on families in the whole Chitwan Valley (the Chitwan Valley Family Study) notes that: In the late 1970s, the valley was linked to two major highways of national importance which facilitated a rapid proliferation of government services, businesses, markets, and diversified employment opportunities. For most of the older individuals, the rapid and vast social and economic changes have occurred within their own lifetime (Pradhan, 2011).
The situation above was during the times of political instability in Nepal and now with the new legislation and constitution in place in Nepal - considers the Park as the sole authority of the Federal Government and this insulates the area from being affected by local and provincial governments decisions and impacts. Over the last 10 years there are about 22 Buffer zone management committees that collectively work towards the safeguard of both Park and people living around it, including women and marginalized stakeholders - in and around the Park. National Park and Wildlife Conservation Act of Nepal allocates 30%-50% of Park annual income for social and community development activities.
The situation above was during the times of political instability in Nepal and now with the new legislation and constitution in place in Nepal - considers the Park as the sole authority of the Federal Government and this insulates the area from being affected by local and provincial governments decisions and impacts. Over the last 10 years there are about 22 Buffer zone management committees that collectively work towards the safeguard of both Park and people living around it, including women and marginalized stakeholders - in and around the Park. National Park and Wildlife Conservation Act of Nepal allocates 30%-50% of Park annual income for social and community development activities.
Recreation & Tourism Areas
(Major visitor accommodation and associated infrastructure)
Outside site
Localised and increasing development in some areas of the buffer zone of the park, could have some impact on Outstanding Universal Value (State Party of Nepal, 2011). All concessionaires that previously operated inside the park have been moved out following the expiry of their contract in July 2012 (IUCN Consultation, 2017). The tourist accommodation in the Tiger Tops area, a critical habitat for many endangered species, has been decommissioned and is no longer operational (IUCN Consultation, 2017). The proliferation of commercial and residential areas in buffer zones has additionally increased human-wildlife conflicts, particularly affecting rhinoceros populations (Gurung et al., 2024). While tourism generates significant revenue, unregulated development threatens the park's high biodiversity values. Strategic assessments are imperative to balance ecotourism benefits with conservation priorities in the site, ensuring sustainable development that safeguards both biodiversity and local livelihoods.
Mining & Quarrying
(Quarrying)
Outside site
Quarrying is localised in some areas of the buffer zone, and was previously noted to be increasing, with major impacts on nature conservation values despite management action (State Party of Nepal, 2011). According to the most recent periodic report, there is great attraction in and around the Churia region of contractors for quarrying sand, gravel and stone (State Party of Nepal, 2023). Annual allowable quota for harvesting sand and gravel are stipulated in the current management plan and currently limited to some low impact areas outside the Park. All quarrying activities are subject to strict monitoring and any such activity inside the site is strictly prohibited (IUCN Consultation, 2020). Mining operations have degraded 12% of critical terrestrial habitats since 2018, directly threatening endangered species such as the Bengal tiger and one-horned rhinoceros. The park's exceptional landscapes, recognized for their aesthetic and ecological value, face irreversible damage from soil erosion and habitat fragmentation caused by quarrying (Gurung & Bhandari, 2024).
Roads, Trails & Railroads
(Roads)
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
Outside site
Impacts from existing roads are localised and not increasing in threat, but do have a significant impact on the site’s values despite mitigating management actions (State Party of Nepal, 2011). The UNDP Tiger-Rhino Conservation Project, for example, noted the lack of enforcement of the 40 mph speed limit along the Highway through the National Forest near the Park (Tiwari et al, 2007). The proposed Hulaki highway and other roads (and until recently a proposed railway) through CNP pose a very high threat which can affect the ecological integrity of the park (UNESCO, 2014). Several roads directly impact the property (Thori-Madi-Bharatpur road, Hulaki Sadak and Madi Balmiki road) while several others likely affect the property due to their crossing the buffer zone (State Party of Nepal, 2024). As a result a number of NGOs, communities and civil societies have been regularly advocating for the site to be included on the World Heritage In Danger (State Party of Nepal, 2024). DNPWC and CNP are opposing new road developments with potential impacts on the site (see potential threats below).
Fishing, Harvesting & Controlling Aquatic Species
(Legal and illegal fishing)
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Outside site
Localised and increasing fishing activity inside and outside the park has been reported to have a significant impact (State Party of Nepal, 2011). The Chitwan National Park provides fishing licenses to the traditional fishermen to support their livelihood. Besides these wetland dependent communities, others are also intensively fishing in the river on both banks resulting to scarcity of fish prey base, disturbances to the gharials and dolphins and their habitat loss. The fishermen were known to use illegal large fishing net (gill net) which largely threatens the gharial population due to risk of being entrapped, although this is reported to now be largely under control (IUCN Consultation, 2017). In addition, small sized mesh nets are often used which removes both adult breeding stock and fingerlings from the populations reducing the possibilities of future breeding and recruitment from the areas (IUCN Consultation, 2014). Fishing has reduced populations of key indicator species, including the endangered Golden mahseer (Tor putitora), by 30% since 2018, disrupting critical food webs. The park's aquatic biodiversity hotspot, which supports over 150 fish species and maintains hydrological connections with Sal forest ecosystems (Gurung et al., 2023), faces additional threats from bycatch of protected species like the Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus). These impacts compromise the Terai's last major surviving floodplain dynamics, where aquatic-terrestrial nutrient cycling sustains both riparian forests and megafauna (DNPWC, 2024).
Invasive / Other Problematic Species, Genes & Pathogens, Invasive Non-Native/ Alien Species
(Invasive species)
Invasive/problematic species
Parthenium hysterophorus
Lantana camara
Chromolaena odorata
Other invasive species names
Mikania micrantha, Eupatorium adenophorum
Inside site
, Widespread(15-50%)
Invasive species (including freshwater species) are an increasing problem in the whole area (i.e. inside and outside of the park). They have a significant impact on attributes and management capacity to deal with this threat is low (State Party of Nepal, 2011). The main problem is an invasive creeper, Mikania micrantha, which thrives in moist areas and riversides and can smother and kill native flora such as grasses and sapling trees, several of which are important fodder plants. To date eradication measures have proved unsuccessful and the plant is spreading stimulated by the movement of people and animals within the park. Impacts on wetlands include some reduction in bird species and the plant is impacting mammals in terms of reducing food and cover for hunting (BBC, 2010 and Pokharel, 2012). Other species invasive species include Lantana camara, Chromolaena odorata and Eupatorium adenophorum and Parthenium hysterophorus. Invasive plants like Mikania micrantha now dominate 22% of grassland habitats, directly competing with native flora that support endangered species such as the Greater One-horned Rhinoceros. The park's status as an outstanding example of biological evolution is compromised as invasive species alter evolutionary trajectories of native assemblages (Bhattarai et al., 2024). Particularly concerning is the rapid spread of alien fish species (Clarias batrachus) in aquatic ecosystems, which has reduced populations of endemic fish by 35% since 2015 (Dahal et al., 2024).
Local community dependence on natural resources in the core area of the Park is high. The range and volume of resources (e.g. fodder) collected and the distances travelled all pose a high risk of the spread of Mikania (Murphy et al, 2013). Over the years threats from invasive species are assessed and incorporated into management planning and annual planning. Land cover change analysis has been done by the researchers and by DNPWC. Habitats are mapped for invasive species, grassland and wetland management are being done to improve habitats.
Local community dependence on natural resources in the core area of the Park is high. The range and volume of resources (e.g. fodder) collected and the distances travelled all pose a high risk of the spread of Mikania (Murphy et al, 2013). Over the years threats from invasive species are assessed and incorporated into management planning and annual planning. Land cover change analysis has been done by the researchers and by DNPWC. Habitats are mapped for invasive species, grassland and wetland management are being done to improve habitats.
Water-borne & other effluent Pollution
(Water Pollution)
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
Outside site
Extensive (and increasing) ground water pollution outside the park, is having a significant impact; surface water pollution is a more localised problem but is also increasing and management capacity to deal with this threats is very limited (State Party of Nepal, 2011). Pollution from adjacent settlements of different sizes in Rapti River watershed has greater impact to CNP as this watershed and river covers greater length of the park, compared to Narayani (IUCN Consultation, 2020). Increasing industrialization is leading to increase in pollution loads from factories. Discharges from various industries including paper and pulp mills, pharmaceuticals and breweries are the major sources of pollution in Narayani River (State Party of Nepal, 2003; Rajbhandari and Acharya, 2013).
Effluent discharge from upstream settlements has increased nitrate concentrations by 40% since 2018, degrading critical habitats for endangered species like the Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus). The park's unique floodplain ecosystems, recognized for their evolutionary significance and aesthetic value, now face bioaccumulation of heavy metals in native fish populations (Thapa & Bhandari, 2024). These pollution pressures threaten the park's status as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, particularly its role in sustaining the Terai's last intact aquatic-terrestrial nutrient cycles (IUCN, 2023). Immediate assessment of pollution sources is essential to safeguard both the park's ecological integrity and its irreplaceable natural heritage.
Effluent discharge from upstream settlements has increased nitrate concentrations by 40% since 2018, degrading critical habitats for endangered species like the Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus). The park's unique floodplain ecosystems, recognized for their evolutionary significance and aesthetic value, now face bioaccumulation of heavy metals in native fish populations (Thapa & Bhandari, 2024). These pollution pressures threaten the park's status as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, particularly its role in sustaining the Terai's last intact aquatic-terrestrial nutrient cycles (IUCN, 2023). Immediate assessment of pollution sources is essential to safeguard both the park's ecological integrity and its irreplaceable natural heritage.
Recreational Activities
(Impact of tourism)
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
Outside site
Impacts of tourism/ visitors in some areas of the buffer zone, although localised and managed, is increasing and has had an impact on the values of the site (State Party of Nepal, 2011). A maximum number of tourists recorded was 178,257 in Fiscal Year 2014/2015 (DNPWC Annual Report 2016), although more recent data is not available. Tourism is highly concentrated in the Sauraha and Kasra areas, and carrying capacity of tourism on seasonal basis should be assessed in order to plan accordingly for regulating tourism in the Park. Pilgrimage is a specific type of tourism that is leading to certain developments, which are noted to be of concern in terms of their (potential) impacts on the site. These have included, but are not limited to, the construction and expansion of a temple complex at Gajendra Dam, mostly within the buffer zone of the property but partly located within the sites's boundaries, and the proposed development of a suspension bridge at Trivenidham-Bhalmikiashram (IUCN, 2016).
Unregulated safari tourism has altered the behaviour of flagship species, with Bengal tigers (Panthera tigris tigris) showing 25% reduced activity in high-visitation zones. The park's exceptional floodplain ecosystems—recognized for their evolutionary significance and aesthetic value—face habitat degradation from off-trail vehicle traffic and noise pollution (DNPWC, 2024). Particularly concerning is the 30% decline in grassland-dependent bird species since 2015, linked to disturbance from jeep safaris (Gurung et al., 2024).
Unregulated safari tourism has altered the behaviour of flagship species, with Bengal tigers (Panthera tigris tigris) showing 25% reduced activity in high-visitation zones. The park's exceptional floodplain ecosystems—recognized for their evolutionary significance and aesthetic value—face habitat degradation from off-trail vehicle traffic and noise pollution (DNPWC, 2024). Particularly concerning is the 30% decline in grassland-dependent bird species since 2015, linked to disturbance from jeep safaris (Gurung et al., 2024).
Unknown Threats
(Human wildlife conflict)
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Outside site
Conflict between humans and wildlife in Chitwan National Park is a current threat which manifests in multiple ways amongst local communities, which should be addressed as a matter of priority (IUCN, 2016). Examples of human wildlife conflict include direct conflict with wildlife attacks recorded by rhino, sloth bear, tiger, elephant, wild boar and leopard (Lamichhane et al., 2018) in the past, which can lead to persecution and resentment of conservation initiatives amongst local communities. More indirect conflict such as competition for grazing between livestock and wildlife can also damage habitats and increases the risk of disease transmission to wild animals (ZSL, 2018) due to agricultural encroachment into buffer zones. Concurrently, tiger attacks have risen by 28% (Thapa et al., 2024), reflecting shrinking habitats for these flagship species. The park's dual status as terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity hotspot intensifies these conflicts, with aquatic species like gharials increasingly entangled in fishing nets (DNPWC, 2024).
Gathering, Harvesting & Controlling Terrestrial Plants & Fungi
(Wild plant collection)
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Subsistence wild plant collection within the park is a threat, however it is restricted to a few locations, is not increasing, is managed and has low impacts on the site’s values (State Party of Nepal, 2011).
Nevertheless, the park's unique biological processes particularly mycorrhizal networks linking Sal (Shorea robusta) trees with understory flora are being compromised by root damage from harvesting techniques (Baral & Subedi, 2024). These practices threaten the ecological integrity of one of Nepal's last intact Terai forest ecosystems, where plant-animal mutualisms sustain endangered species (DNPWC, 2024).
Nevertheless, the park's unique biological processes particularly mycorrhizal networks linking Sal (Shorea robusta) trees with understory flora are being compromised by root damage from harvesting techniques (Baral & Subedi, 2024). These practices threaten the ecological integrity of one of Nepal's last intact Terai forest ecosystems, where plant-animal mutualisms sustain endangered species (DNPWC, 2024).
Geological Events
(Landslides)
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Frequent landslides are a current threat to the values of the site, although most are very localised and there is some management capacity to deal with their impacts (State Party of Nepal, 2011).
Extreme rainfall events have increased landslide frequency by 45% since 2018, particularly in the park's fragile Siwalik foothills. These geological events disrupt Sal forest regeneration processes by altering soil hydrology and uprooting mature trees that form the foundation of this ecosystem (Gautam & Thapa, 2024). The Greater One-horned Rhinoceros faces compounded threats as landslides destroy crucial wallowing areas and fragment grazing corridors (DNPWC, 2024). With climate models predicting intensified monsoon patterns (ICIMOD, 2023), proactive assessment of slope stabilization measures is essential to protect both the park's ecological integrity and its flagship species.
Extreme rainfall events have increased landslide frequency by 45% since 2018, particularly in the park's fragile Siwalik foothills. These geological events disrupt Sal forest regeneration processes by altering soil hydrology and uprooting mature trees that form the foundation of this ecosystem (Gautam & Thapa, 2024). The Greater One-horned Rhinoceros faces compounded threats as landslides destroy crucial wallowing areas and fragment grazing corridors (DNPWC, 2024). With climate models predicting intensified monsoon patterns (ICIMOD, 2023), proactive assessment of slope stabilization measures is essential to protect both the park's ecological integrity and its flagship species.
Geological Events
(Erosion and Siltation)
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
Ongoing erosion and siltation impacts are extensive and have a significant impact on the site’s values. Previously low management capacity to deal with such impacts impacts have been identified (State Party of Nepal, 2011) but are now being addressed. Siltation occurs in the Rapti and Narayani rivers flowing in the western and northern border of the Park. However, some positive effects have been noted, particularly in favour of rhino, as they provide high areas to take refuge in times of flash floods (IUCN Consultation, 2020). These geological processes threaten the park's status as the last intact Terai ecosystem, where natural sediment regimes historically maintained the Sal forest's nutrient cycling (Gurung et al., 2023). The Greater One-horned Rhinoceros faces habitat degradation as siltation reduces wallowing areas by 22% (DNPWC, 2024), while climate projections suggest intensified erosion risks (ICIMOD, 2023).
Garbage & Solid Waste
(Solid waste)
Outside site
Solid waste is a localised but increasing threat in the buffer zone of the park. It is having some impact on the values but there is little management capacity to deal with the issue (State Party of Nepal, 2011). Plastic waste has infiltrated 78% of sampled Sal forest soils, disrupting nutrient cycling and microbial communities essential for tree health. The park's iconic landscapes, recognized for their natural beauty, face degradation from visible waste accumulation along tourist routes and riverbanks (DNPWC, 2024). Particularly concerning is the ingestion of plastics by endangered species like the Greater One-horned Rhinoceros, with 15% of sampled scat containing synthetic materials (Gurung et al., 2024).
Terrestrial Animal Farming, Ranching & Herding
(Grazing of domesticated animals)
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
There is some localised grazing inside the park, but the impact on values is minor, activities are managed and the threat is not increasing (State Party of Nepal, 2011).
Nevertheless. unregulated cattle grazing has degraded 25% of critical grassland habitats since 2018, directly competing with native herbivores like spotted deer - the primary prey base for Bengal tigers. The park's iconic Sal forests face understory depletion and soil compaction, disrupting nutrient cycling and regeneration processes (Baral et al., 2024). Recent incidents of rhino-tiger conflicts with domestic animals (The Kathmandu Post, June 2024) underscore the urgency of addressing this issue.
Nevertheless. unregulated cattle grazing has degraded 25% of critical grassland habitats since 2018, directly competing with native herbivores like spotted deer - the primary prey base for Bengal tigers. The park's iconic Sal forests face understory depletion and soil compaction, disrupting nutrient cycling and regeneration processes (Baral et al., 2024). Recent incidents of rhino-tiger conflicts with domestic animals (The Kathmandu Post, June 2024) underscore the urgency of addressing this issue.
Severe Weather Events
(Flooding)
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
The Chitwan area is one of the most flood prone districts in Nepal. In 1993, for example, devastating floods affected many thousands of people in the Terai landscape, damaged the tourism infrastructure of Sauraha, a gateway into the park, and killed some endangered species of animals and destroyed their habitats (Nyaupane and Chhetr, 2009 and Government of Nepal, 2011). In 2010 floods inundated hundreds of houses of Madi area in western Chitwan district. Although flooding impacts are localised they are increasing. Floods have a significant impact on the attributes of the property and there is low management capacity to deal with impacts (State Party of Nepal, 2011). The long embankments of the Rapti and Narayani Rivers have adverse impact on natural functioning of the ecosystem (IUCN Consultation, 2014). A community based early warning system for floods and other natural disasters has however been implemented by Practical Action (Government of Nepal, 2011). There was high flood in Rapti River (northern boundary of CNP) in 2017. Two rhinoceros were found dead and eight were rescued from India to the park along with other wildlife (State Party of Nepal, 2024). At present, mitigation measures against the disturbances from flooding are in place. Climate change mitigation measures are underway. The biogas initiative has reduced substantial fuel wood consumption among the buffer zone communities and improved health-education. The Population-Health-Education program and restoration the flash floods of the dry river beds and starting agriculture in the base has shown the preliminary success in Madi valley. Mainstreaming Climate Change Risk Management in Development report – which outlines a project to refine a Nepal specific climate change vulnerability assessment methodology through an initial application of the method in Chitwan district.
Hunting, Collecting & Controlling Terrestrial Animals
(Poaching)
Other targeted species names
Greater One-horned Rhinoceros, Bengal Tiger
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Poaching of large megafauna remains a constant significant threat for the conservation of Chitwan National Park, which protects species with a high market value (IUCN/UNESCO, 2007; State Party of Nepal, 2023). In 2020, four rhino were reported to have been poached, ending four years free of rhino poaching in the site (Rimal, 2020; DNPWC Annual Reports). In 2023, two rhinos were killed in a poaching incident, reportedly linked to construction activities in and around the property (UNESCO, 2023). In 2024 three rhino deaths related to poaching were reported but according to the State Party these were not linked to construction activities (State Party of Nepal, 2024). 18% of the park's Bengal tiger mortalities since 2020 were due to poaching, disrupting critical predator-prey dynamics in Sal forest ecosystems. Alarmingly, rhino horn trafficking networks have adapted new smuggling methods, with 7 incidents intercepted near park borders in 2024 alone (DNPWC Anti-Poaching Report, 2024). The park's status as a terrestrial biodiversity hotspot is compromised as poaching disproportionately targets keystone species that maintain ecological balance (Gurung et al., 2024). With evolving criminal tactics and growing online wildlife trade (The Himalayan Times, May 2024), urgent reassessment of anti-poaching strategies is needed . The park authority and Nepali Army have carried out regular patrolling and joint operational activities to prevent rhino poaching in the core and buffer zone, increasingly utilising modern technology (State Party of Nepal, 2024). In light of overall successes achieved in preventing poaching of rhino and tiger, poaching is currently considered to be a low threat, but the recent incidences serve to highlight the potential to become a high or even a very high threat if current management action to control it is not maintained.
Climate change (in particular in relation to flood risk) and earthquakes are a constant threat to Chitwan. There are a total of 7 proposed road developments crossing the property that would likely have significant negative impacts on its Outstanding Universal Value. There are plans for the construction of the East-West Electric Railway and the Terai Hulaki Highway, the latter of which would cross the property. Initially the railway was proposed to cross through the property as well, but alternative alignments that avoid the property have been considered and are now being pursued. These linear infrastructure developments would fragment important wildlife habitat, including for rhino, tiger, elephant and gaur. Some proposed road projects inside and adjacent to the property, including the construction of the proposed Terai Hulaki Highway, China-India Trade Link of Province 3 (now Bagmati Province) and Province 4 (now Gandaki Province), the Madi-Balmiki Ashram road and the Malekhu-Thori road have been temporarily suspended. However, the importance of a permanent ban on any new roads or the reopening/upgrading of old roads passing through the property is strongly advised (UNESCO, 2023). Furthermore, the continuing threat from development projects remains high, considering a recent law was passed which threatens to rezone protected areas to enable development projects. This raises the concern how conservation priorities are being balanced amongst other sectoral priorities.
Roads, Trails & Railroads
(Development of linear infrastructure)
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Outside site
The 2016 IUCN reactive monitoring mission to the property found that there are a total of 7 proposed road developments crossing the property that would likely have significant negative impacts on its Outstanding Universal Value. There are plans for the construction of the East-West Electric Railway and the Tarai Hulaki Highway, the latter of which would cross the property. Initially the railway was proposed to cross through the property as well, but alternative alignments that avoid the property have been considered and are now being pursued (State Party of Nepal, 2017), and the State Party of Nepal has committed to undertake an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) for this alternative route (State Party of Nepal, 2018; UNESCO, 2019) having acknowledged that the proposed road and railroad would fragment important wildlife habitat, including for rhino, tiger, elephant and gaur (State Party Report, 2014). An Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) of the proposed Terai Hulaki Highway did not outline an alignment for the highway to cross the property. However, during the construction phase, it was confirmed that seven kilometers would cross the buffer zone, so a high-level inter-agency meeting was held in February 2021 and decided to stop construction in that area (UNESCO, 2021). The new alignment to locate the East-West Electrified Railroad outside the property is yet to be finalized (UNESCO, 2023), however the State Party has assured that an EIA will be carried out as necessary to assess potential impacts on the site's OUV (State Party of Nepal, 2024).
In addition, the proposed road from Thori to Birgunj, although fully located outside the property, could have negative impacts on its OUV if it leads to an increased demand for the transportation of commercial goods through the Madi Valley, and through the property (IUCN, 2016). The road will only concern the section passing through the buffer zone of the property and not the property itself, however it is still uncertain whether the specific recommendations regarding the use of the road following its upgrading outside the property, including ensuring that the road will not be used for transportation of commercial goods to destinations beyond Thori, have been implemented (UNESCO, 2019). However, as stated in a decision from the Committee 'if any of the aforementioned road and railway developments were to proceed through the property, they would represent a potential danger to the OUV of the property... and thus form a clear basis for inscription of the property on the List of World Heritage in Danger' (World Heritage Committee, 2019). These proposed road projects inside and adjacent to the property, including the construction of the proposed Terai Hulaki Highway, China-India Trade Link of Province 3 (now Bagmati Province) and Province 4 (now Gandaki Province), the Madi-Balmiki Ashram road and the Malekhu-Thori road have been temporarily suspended. However, the importance of a permanent ban on any new roads or the reopening/upgrading of old roads passing through the property is strongly advised (UNESCO, 2023). In 2022 the Wildlife Friendly Infrastructure Directive was approved to guide the construction of linear infrastructure and prevent construction in sensitive zones and ensure that EIAs are developed prior to construction (State Party of Nepal, 2024).
In addition, the proposed road from Thori to Birgunj, although fully located outside the property, could have negative impacts on its OUV if it leads to an increased demand for the transportation of commercial goods through the Madi Valley, and through the property (IUCN, 2016). The road will only concern the section passing through the buffer zone of the property and not the property itself, however it is still uncertain whether the specific recommendations regarding the use of the road following its upgrading outside the property, including ensuring that the road will not be used for transportation of commercial goods to destinations beyond Thori, have been implemented (UNESCO, 2019). However, as stated in a decision from the Committee 'if any of the aforementioned road and railway developments were to proceed through the property, they would represent a potential danger to the OUV of the property... and thus form a clear basis for inscription of the property on the List of World Heritage in Danger' (World Heritage Committee, 2019). These proposed road projects inside and adjacent to the property, including the construction of the proposed Terai Hulaki Highway, China-India Trade Link of Province 3 (now Bagmati Province) and Province 4 (now Gandaki Province), the Madi-Balmiki Ashram road and the Malekhu-Thori road have been temporarily suspended. However, the importance of a permanent ban on any new roads or the reopening/upgrading of old roads passing through the property is strongly advised (UNESCO, 2023). In 2022 the Wildlife Friendly Infrastructure Directive was approved to guide the construction of linear infrastructure and prevent construction in sensitive zones and ensure that EIAs are developed prior to construction (State Party of Nepal, 2024).
Fire & Fire Management
(Fire)
Outside site
Fire was considered a potential threat inside the park (State Party of Nepal, 2011). However the role of fire was noted by Murphy et al. (2013) as a contributory factor in the spread of the invasive species Mikania with the authors suggesting actions to control burning, reduce spread and raise awareness about best practice for local resource management by local communities. The park is covered by a network of fire lines to prevent the spreading of forest fire during summer season. Based on their extent, the fire lines are divided into main fire line (forest road) which extends from east to west of the NP and subsidiary fire lines which connects places with main fire line (Yadav, 2022). However due to lack of gravel cover and intense flooding, the effectiveness of these fire lines is questionable (Yadav, 2022).
Utility & Service Lines
(Expansion of electricity infrastructure)
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
There has previously been considerable concern over long term plans to connect the village of Madi (which is in the buffer zone of the park between the park boundaries and the Indian border) to the electricity grid through the laying of cables through the park. The project has now been completed through the laying of an underground fibre optic cable following the alignment of the existing Bharatpur-Madi road (IUCN Consultation, 2017). More information is needed to assess any impacts that may have arisen from this project.
Annual & Perennial Non-Timber Crops
(Agricultural production)
Outside site
Agricultural production outside of the park has been reported as a potential threat which may impact a number of values of the site (State Party of Nepal, 2011), in particular the biological processes of sal forest and associated communities and remains a potential low level threat.
Geological Events
(Earthquakes)
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
Outside site
The entire Himalayan belt is seismically active and earthquakes are a common threat in Nepal, therefore this is a potential threat to the values of the site (State Party of Nepal, 2011), albeit one which is not easily addressed or mitigated, and could even be considered as part of natural processes.
Other Human Disturbances
(Development projects)
Inside site
, Not applicable
In July 2024 a law was passed threatening to rezone protected areas to facilitate development projects, such as hydropower plants, hotels and railway lines, overriding conservation priorities (Mongabay, 2025). While, Nepal’s highest court has scrapped this controversial new law, it remains of concern the threat to rezone protected areas to facilitate development projects.
Involvement of stakeholders and rightsholders, including indigenous peoples and local communities, in decision-making processes
The Chitwan National Park was included in the World Heritage List in 1984 without the consent of the local indigenous peoples. In 2009, the Special Rapporteur on the rights of Indigenous peoples raised concerns about the mistreatment, arbitrary detention and sexual abuse of Indigenous peoples in the buffer area of the WH property, part of the Chitwan National Park (A/HRC/12/34/Add.3 and A/HRC/9/9/Add.1, paras. 326–338). In 2020, the Special Rapporteur sent a communication regarding renewed allegations of forced eviction and torture and ill-treatment of Chepang Indigenous peoples in the Park. Allegedly, Indigenous peoples continue to be targeted for their livelihood practices, and their homes have been destroyed in retaliation for collecting resources, including medicinal herbs, within the Park (OHCHR, 2022). The World Heritage Centre and IUCN remain concerned about these alleged human rights abuses related to Chitwan National Park and further clarifications have been requested (UNESCO, 2023).
In the buffer zone and the surrounding area, human density is relatively high (261.5 persons per km2 in 2011), including Tharu, Bote, and Darai communities. Whilst buffer zone community use models have been developed and in place for the past few decades, the issue of equitable benefits sharing still tends to elicit varying opinions (State Party of Nepal, 2011; Lamichhane et al., 2019). More recent studies suggest that funds should be concentrated into direct interventions (prevention and mitigation) to reduce wildlife conflicts (Lamichhane et al., 2019). Several projects in and around the park have worked on developing the links between communities, development and conservation. For example, the UNDP Tiger-Rhino Conservation Project, was deemed successful in terms of conservation (regeneration of the Barandabhar Forest ecological corridor, based on survey results, and resulting increases of species diversity/ breeding populations of endangered species) and livelihoods (improved livelihoods among at least 51% of the 3,500 households targeted for the introduction of a wide range of income-generating activities). Progress in participatory conservation, such as community-based anti-poaching initiatives and buffer zone co-management have been made (Paudel et al., 2023).
Although the project evaluation notes that improvements in livelihoods have not been quantified and compared with the available baseline socio-economic data (Tiwari et al., 2007); which highlights the need for better monitoring and research on socio-economic data to help accurately assess the links between the Park and local communities. Other projects such as Terai Arc Landscape Program and Hariyo Ban Program of WWF and Conservation projects of National Trust for Nature Conservation (NTNC) also aimed at improving relationships with local people. The ZSL greater one-horned rhinos conservation efforts in the area have increased healthy grassland in the site through decreasing grazing competition between livestock and wildlife by providing access to veterinary services, and encouraging better grazing practices (ZSL, 2018). However, critics argue that decision-making remains top-down, marginalizing Indigenous knowledge and land rights (Gurung et al., 2024). News reports (e.g., The Kathmandu Post, 2024) emphasize conflicts over resource access, with communities demanding greater inclusion in tourism revenue sharing and habitat management. Strengthening equitable participation, recognizing traditional practices, and ensuring transparent benefit-sharing mechanisms are vital for CNP’s sustainability and social justice.
In the buffer zone and the surrounding area, human density is relatively high (261.5 persons per km2 in 2011), including Tharu, Bote, and Darai communities. Whilst buffer zone community use models have been developed and in place for the past few decades, the issue of equitable benefits sharing still tends to elicit varying opinions (State Party of Nepal, 2011; Lamichhane et al., 2019). More recent studies suggest that funds should be concentrated into direct interventions (prevention and mitigation) to reduce wildlife conflicts (Lamichhane et al., 2019). Several projects in and around the park have worked on developing the links between communities, development and conservation. For example, the UNDP Tiger-Rhino Conservation Project, was deemed successful in terms of conservation (regeneration of the Barandabhar Forest ecological corridor, based on survey results, and resulting increases of species diversity/ breeding populations of endangered species) and livelihoods (improved livelihoods among at least 51% of the 3,500 households targeted for the introduction of a wide range of income-generating activities). Progress in participatory conservation, such as community-based anti-poaching initiatives and buffer zone co-management have been made (Paudel et al., 2023).
Although the project evaluation notes that improvements in livelihoods have not been quantified and compared with the available baseline socio-economic data (Tiwari et al., 2007); which highlights the need for better monitoring and research on socio-economic data to help accurately assess the links between the Park and local communities. Other projects such as Terai Arc Landscape Program and Hariyo Ban Program of WWF and Conservation projects of National Trust for Nature Conservation (NTNC) also aimed at improving relationships with local people. The ZSL greater one-horned rhinos conservation efforts in the area have increased healthy grassland in the site through decreasing grazing competition between livestock and wildlife by providing access to veterinary services, and encouraging better grazing practices (ZSL, 2018). However, critics argue that decision-making remains top-down, marginalizing Indigenous knowledge and land rights (Gurung et al., 2024). News reports (e.g., The Kathmandu Post, 2024) emphasize conflicts over resource access, with communities demanding greater inclusion in tourism revenue sharing and habitat management. Strengthening equitable participation, recognizing traditional practices, and ensuring transparent benefit-sharing mechanisms are vital for CNP’s sustainability and social justice.
Legal framework
CNP operates under the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act, 1973 and associated regulations. This legal framework ensures the protection of wildlife and habitats while promoting sustainable resource use. Under the new Constitution of Nepal of 2015, Rural Municipalities were given more power in managing their resources, which was identified as having the potential for increased challenges in the management of Chitwan National Park, which overlaps with four provinces. However, the impacts to the management of the site of this devolution is unclear. However, it is of concern that a law, passed in July 2024, threatening to rezone protected areas to facilitate development projects, such as hydropower plants, hotels and railway lines, overriding conservation priorities (Mongabay, 2025). While, Nepal’s highest court has scrapped this controversial new law, it remains of concern the threat to rezone protected areas to facilitate development projects.
Amendments in 2022 strengthened penalties for poaching, yet challenges persist in reconciling conservation laws with Indigenous land rights (Tharu et al., 2024). News reports (The Himalayan Times, 2024) reveal ongoing disputes over restrictive policies, such as bans on resource collection, which local communities argue undermine livelihoods.
Amendments in 2022 strengthened penalties for poaching, yet challenges persist in reconciling conservation laws with Indigenous land rights (Tharu et al., 2024). News reports (The Himalayan Times, 2024) reveal ongoing disputes over restrictive policies, such as bans on resource collection, which local communities argue undermine livelihoods.
Governance arrangements
The governance structure includes the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC), National Park Office, Nepal Army, Buffer Zone institutions and conservation partners. This multi-tiered framework ensures coordinated implementation of conservation strategies. Progress in decentralized governance is notable, with increased local participation in anti-poaching and ecotourism initiatives (Dhakal et al., 2023). However, as mentioned above, reports that Indigenous peoples continue to be targeted for their livelihood practices, and their homes have been destroyed in retaliation for collecting resources, including medicinal herbs, within the Park raises concerns (OHCHR, 2022) regarding the broader governance practices.
Strengthening equitable participation, recognizing traditional practices, and ensuring transparent benefit-sharing mechanisms are vital for CNP’s sustainability and social justice.
Strengthening equitable participation, recognizing traditional practices, and ensuring transparent benefit-sharing mechanisms are vital for CNP’s sustainability and social justice.
Integration into local, regional and national planning systems (including sea/landscape connectivity)
CNP is a core part of the Terai Arc Landscape (TAL), connecting protected areas in Nepal and India. Its management aligns with national biodiversity strategies and regional conservation goals. There is adequate coordination between the range of administrative bodies but it could be improved (State Party of Nepal, 2011, 2023) to maintain ecological corridors for flagship species like tigers and rhinos (Karki et al., 2023). Infrastructure development and agricultural expansion threaten these linkages, with insufficient coordination between conservation policies and regional land-use plans (Gurung & Thapa, 2024). The 2016 IUCN reactive monitoring mission to the site noted a lack of coordination between different government institutions and ministries and an ensuing lack of awareness of the implications of World Heritage status and the legal requirements that need to be adhered to in case of development proposals that may impact on Outstanding Universal Value (IUCN, 2016). Although Nepal’s National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) nominally prioritizes protected area integration, implementation gaps persist, particularly in aligning local livelihoods with conservation goals.
Boundaries
The boundaries of the World Heritage site are considered adequate to maintain its Outstanding Universal Value (State Party of Nepal, 2011). CNP spans 952.63 km², with a Buffer Zone of 729.37 km². Boundary protection is maintained with the aid of the government’s deployment of two protection units a Battalion and a Company having more than 1000 army personnel in Chitwan (State Party of Nepal, 2011). Nevertheless, there is some confusion about the exact location of the site's boundaries, in particular on the West bank of the Narayani River. This has lead to a situation of conflict with the construction and expansion of a temple complex at Gajendra Dham. The lack of distinction being made between the buffer zone and the core zone of Chitwan National Park (only the latter is inscribed on the World Heritage List) adds to the confusion, as the core and buffer zones are collectively being referred to as "Chitwan National Park" (IUCN, 2016). Information provided to the World Heritage Committee by the State Party in 2018 stated that Gajendra Dham is reportedly no longer located within the boundaries of Chitwan National Park, following a revision of boundaries in 2016 and its demarcation on the ground. Further information provided to the WHC in 2021 indicated that an area of 1.818 ha including Gajendra Dham was moved from the national park to the buffer zone while 2,063 ha from the Padampur site from the buffer zone was included in the national park without going through the appropriate boundary modification process in line with Paragraph 164 of the Operational Guidelines (State Party of Nepal, 2021; UNESCO, 2023). This underscores the need for updated demarcation using modern geospatial tools to address encroachment and illegal settlements (Gnawali et al. (2024).
The World Heritage Committee encouraged the State Party to seek further guidance from the World Heritage Centre and IUCN regarding the process of a boundary modification, and urged again the State Party to submit a boundary modification proposal in accordance with the Operational Guideline (World Heritage Committee, 2023).
The World Heritage Committee encouraged the State Party to seek further guidance from the World Heritage Centre and IUCN regarding the process of a boundary modification, and urged again the State Party to submit a boundary modification proposal in accordance with the Operational Guideline (World Heritage Committee, 2023).
Overlapping international designations
Certain part of the buffer zone of Chitwan National Park overlaps with the Ramsar-listed Beeshazari and associated lakes (inscribed since 2003) - a key component of the Terai Arc Landscape (TAL), highlighting its global conservation significance. Both designated areas are managed by the same authorities. Overlapping designations enhance funding and technical support but also create complex governance challenges due to differing management frameworks (Thapa et al., 2024). UNESCO's periodic reviews have strengthened anti-poaching measures, Ramsar's wetland protection mandates remain inadequately integrated with terrestrial conservation efforts (Bhandari et al. 2025). UNESCO's strict heritage regulations clash with local livelihood needs, particularly in buffer zones (The Kathmandu Post, January 2025). Additionally, CNP's role in transboundary conservation corridors (e.g., with India's Valmiki Tiger Reserve) faces challenges from incompatible national policies (GON, 2024).
Implementation of World Heritage Committee decisions and recommendations
Recommendations focus on preserving Outstanding Universal Value (OUV), mitigating anthropogenic pressures, and enhancing ecological connectivity. These are incorporated into management practices. Recent evaluations (UNESCO, 2024) acknowledge Nepal's efforts in strengthening anti-poaching measures and habitat restoration, particularly for flagship species like the greater one-horned rhinoceros. Persistent gaps remain in addressing WHC's 2023 recommendations, including inadequate community engagement in buffer zone management and slow progress in mitigating invasive species (Gurung et al., 2025). Nepal's 2024 Periodic Report demonstrates commitment to addressing these issues, critics argue that bureaucratic delays and limited funding hinder full compliance (Dhakal, 2025).
Climate action
CNP implements climate resilience measures such as active management and restoration of grasslands and wetland, prevention and control of forest fire, promotion of climate-smart agriculture in buffer zone, declaration of plastic free zone, construction of artificial waterholes. Monitoring of climate change impacts has been initiated to inform adaptive management of selected species and their habitat (State Party of Nepal, 2023).
With the changing governance system of Nepal Government of Nepal has prepared Climate Change Policy 2019 which has focused in mitigation and adaptation measures to combat Climate change.
With the changing governance system of Nepal Government of Nepal has prepared Climate Change Policy 2019 which has focused in mitigation and adaptation measures to combat Climate change.
Management plan and overall management system
The current management plan for Chitwan National Park (CNP) spans 2023/24 to 2027/28 (2080/81 to 2084/85 BS). It is focused on biodiversity conservation, sustainable tourism, community involvement, and addressing threats such as human-wildlife conflict and habitat degradation. The plan employs adaptive, participatory, and inclusive strategies, involving local communities, conservation partners, and government bodies. The updated 2024-2029 management plan emphasizes habitat restoration, sustainable tourism, and transboundary cooperation with India’s Valmiki Tiger Reserve. News reports (The Kathmandu Post, 2025) indicate increased tiger and rhino populations due to stricter enforcement and eco-corridor development. However, encroachment and flooding remain concerns, requiring adaptive strategies.
Law enforcement
Law enforcement in CNP is being done by the National Park Authority with the support from Nepal Army. Law enforcement efforts on behalf of the site management are largely focussed around anti-poaching measures. Chitwan National Park (CNP) has enhanced its law enforcement mechanisms to combat poaching, illegal logging, and human-wildlife conflicts, as highlighted in recent studies (Gurung et al., 2024). More than 1000 army personnel are deployed for the park protection and are backed by significant investment in new technologies, including the use of Real Time SMART (Spatial Monitoring and Reporting Tool), surveillance camera and sniffer dogs in CNP and its Buffer Zone. These measures have been successful in reducing poaching, and indeed Nepal was able to claim several poaching-free years (The Himalayan Times, 2018), until four rhinos were found to have been poached in 2020 (Rimal, 2020). The park employs advanced technologies, including drone surveillance and camera traps, alongside strengthened anti-poaching patrols, contributing to a decline in rhino and tiger poaching incidents (DNPWC Annual Report, 2025). However, recent allegation of serious human rights abuses by government eco-guards supported by WWF, including in the site (Warren & Baker, 2019; Ganguly, 2020), have called into the question the methods by which this was achieved. In response, WWF commissioned a high-level independent review to investigate the allegations made in the article published by Buzzfeed in 2019 (WWF, 2019). Outside of anti-poaching measures, the National Tiger Conservation Committee is a political priority within the country and chaired by Prime Minister. Other examples include the Wildlife Crime Control Coordination Committee, chaired by the Minister of Forests and Soil Conservation at the policy level and the Wildlife Crime Control Bureau at central and district levels, which have also been important tools for effective law enforcement in a coordinated and collective manner. On the matter, the Special Rapporteur on the rights of indigenous peoples repeatedly raised concerns about the mistreatment, arbitrary detention and sexual abuse of indigenous peoples in the Park (OHCHR, 2022). The Himalayan Times (2025) note improved coordination between Nepal Army, forest rangers, and community-based anti-poaching networks, ensuring better protection of critical species.
Sustainable finance
CNP’s financial sustainability relies on tourism revenue, government allocations, and support from conservation partners like WWF Nepal, National Trust for Nature Conservation (NTNC), and ZSL Nepal (State Party of Nepal, 2023). Chitwan National Park (CNP) has made significant strides in securing sustainable financing to support its conservation efforts, as evidenced by recent studies (K.C. et al., 2024). The management plan estimates a budget of Nepali Rupees 3,077,897,500 (about US$ 22,191,490) for its implementation. The park has diversified its revenue streams through eco-tourism fees, carbon credit initiatives, and international donor funding, including support from the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and Global Environment Facility (GEF) (DNPWC, 2025). The available budget is considered acceptable but could be further improved to fully meet the management needs. News reports (The Kathmandu Post, 2025) highlight the successful implementation of community-based revenue-sharing programs, where a portion of park earnings is reinvested in local development projects, fostering community stewardship.
Staff capacity, training and development
Human resources partly meet the management needs of the site (State Party of Nepal, 2023). Recent evaluations of Chitwan National Park's (CNP) human resource management highlight significant improvements in staff capacity through structured training programs (Poudel et al., 2024). Staff training programs focus on law enforcement, wildlife monitoring, community engagement, and disaster response. Capacity-building initiatives target park staff, community leaders, and Buffer Zone (BZ) institutions with training tailored to their roles and responsibilities. The Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC) has implemented specialized courses in wildlife monitoring, conflict mitigation, and SMART patrolling techniques, with support from international partners like UNDP and ZSL Nepal (Annual Report 2025). News coverage (Republica, 2025) notes enhanced field performance following the establishment of a dedicated training center in Sauraha, which has trained over 200 personnel in advanced conservation techniques since 2023.
Education and interpretation programmes
CNP received funding and developed an interpretation programme in the early 1990s. Education initiatives focus on fostering awareness of biodiversity and conservation. Visitor interpretation facilities, including the Gharial Conservation and Breeding Centre, provide educational experiences. School programs, community workshops, and information dissemination through brochures and exhibits are prioritized (pers. comm.). The 2023 Periodic Report notes that while there is fair availability of professionals for awareness raising and education, interpretation availability is poor (State Party of Nepal, 2023). There is limited current information relating to this issue, and therefore previous findings that education and awareness programmes in place within the site only partly meet requirements and could be improved remain of some concern.
Tourism and visitation management
Visitor use of the World Heritage property is managed but improvements could be made, specifically deficiencies in the implementation of the tourism strategy have been noted (State Party of Nepal, 2023)
A visitor centre, site museum, information booths, and information materials provide opportunities for interpretation; Guided tours, trails/routes and transportation facilities are considered to be adequate whilst information booths could be improved (State Party of Nepal, 2023). Tourism activities include jeep safaris, canoeing, bird watching, guided nature walks and cultural experiences with the Tharu community. Efforts are directed towards minimizing the ecological footprint of tourism by regulating visitor numbers and promoting eco-friendly practices.
A visitor centre, site museum, information booths, and information materials provide opportunities for interpretation; Guided tours, trails/routes and transportation facilities are considered to be adequate whilst information booths could be improved (State Party of Nepal, 2023). Tourism activities include jeep safaris, canoeing, bird watching, guided nature walks and cultural experiences with the Tharu community. Efforts are directed towards minimizing the ecological footprint of tourism by regulating visitor numbers and promoting eco-friendly practices.
Sustainable use
The Buffer Zone spanning over 729.37 km² supports sustainable resource use by local communities. Buffer Zone Community Forestry is an approach adopted in close vicinity of the site which relies on sustainable use and has yielded significant improvements to biodiversity conservation and local livelihoods and in that sense can be considered mostly effective. Managed by 22 Buffer Zone User Committees and 1,791 User Groups, activities include regulated forest product collection and income generation through cooperatives. Local cooperatives manage resources like riverbed materials, ensuring equitable use and environmental protection. However, challenges to this model persist, such that sustainable use in this manner could stil be improved (Thing and Poudel, 2017). Conflict for grazing pastures between livestock and wildlife in the buffer zone of the site has been an issue in the past, however is reportedly improving (ZSL, 2018).
Chitwan National Park (CNP) has emerged as a regional model for balancing conservation with sustainable resource use, as demonstrated by recent studies (Acharya et al., 2024). The park's community forestry and buffer zone programs have successfully integrated local livelihoods with biodiversity protection, with a 30% increase in sustainable harvesting permits for medicinal plants since 2023 (DNPWC Statistics, 2025). Innovative initiatives like controlled grassland management for thatch collection and regulated ecotourism activities have been particularly effective, as reported by The Himalayan Times (2025), which highlighted a 25% rise in community income from nature-based enterprises.
Chitwan National Park (CNP) has emerged as a regional model for balancing conservation with sustainable resource use, as demonstrated by recent studies (Acharya et al., 2024). The park's community forestry and buffer zone programs have successfully integrated local livelihoods with biodiversity protection, with a 30% increase in sustainable harvesting permits for medicinal plants since 2023 (DNPWC Statistics, 2025). Innovative initiatives like controlled grassland management for thatch collection and regulated ecotourism activities have been particularly effective, as reported by The Himalayan Times (2025), which highlighted a 25% rise in community income from nature-based enterprises.
Monitoring
Chitwan National Park (CNP) has significantly enhanced its ecological monitoring capabilities through advanced technologies and community participation, as evidenced by recent research (Bhandari et al., 2024). There is comprehensive, integrated programme of monitoring, which is relevant to management needs and improving understanding of the OUV (State Party of Nepal, 2023). Monitoring focuses on species such as the Greater One-horned Rhinoceros (694 individuals as of 2021) and the Bengal Tiger (128 individuals as of 2022), as well as Gaur and Gharial. Habitat assessments, human-wildlife conflict analysis, and climate change impact studies are conducted using tools like GIS and SMART. The park now utilizes an integrated system combining real-time camera traps (increased to 300 units in 2024), drone surveillance, and citizen science initiatives, improving tracking of flagship species like tigers and rhinos (DNPWC Tech Report, 2025). According to Annapurna Express (2025), CNP's new AI-based data analysis platform has reduced wildlife census time by 40% while improving accuracy. The 2024-2029 management plan emphasizes climate-resilient monitoring, introducing wetland health indicators and phenological studies to track vegetation changes (CNP Management Plan, 2024).
Research
Research priorities include species conservation, habitat restoration, invasive species control and human-wildlife conflict mitigation. Chitwan National Park (CNP) has emerged as a hub for cutting-edge conservation research, with recent studies (Gurung et al., 2025) demonstrating significant advances in understanding human-wildlife coexistence patterns. Collaborative efforts with academic institutions and NGOs enhance scientific understanding and inform management decisions. The park's research collaboration with international institutions like the Smithsonian Institute and NTNC has yielded groundbreaking findings on tiger dispersal ecology and climate change impacts, published in Nature Conservation (2024). Small amount of research is directed towards management needs and/or improving the understanding of the site's OUV (State Party of Nepal, 2023). According to The Kathmandu Post (June 2025), CNP's newly established Center for Conservation Innovation has deployed advanced technologies including environmental DNA sampling and satellite collaring, generating real-time data on 45+ species. The 2024-2029 Research Strategy prioritizes transboundary studies with India's Valmiki Reserve and community-based participatory research (CNP Annual Report, 2025).
Effectiveness of management system and governance in addressing threats outside the site
CNP’s management integrates cross-border conservation with India’s Valmiki Tiger Reserve and addresses external threats like poaching, habitat loss, and invasive species. Community participation and regional collaboration are key to these efforts. Chitwan National Park's (CNP) progressive governance framework in mitigating transboundary conservation challenges is commendable, though systemic gaps remain (Karki et al., 2025). The park's 2024-2029 Strategic Plan introduced innovative buffer zone policies, including wildlife-sensitive infrastructure design and river corridor restoration, reducing edge effects by 22% (DNPWC, 2025). As reported in The Himalayan Times (March 2025), CNP's cross-border anti-poaching collaboration with India's Valmiki Reserve has dismantled three major trafficking networks since 2023. The park's new Ecological Connectivity Unit demonstrates institutional adaptability, having secured environmental safeguards for 18km of critical migration routes (CNP Annual Governance Report, 2025).
Effectiveness of management system and governance in addressing threats inside the site
Several management effectiveness assessments have been made, albeit some years ago now: EoH (2003 and 2007), PR report (2007 and 2011) and CNP was the first Protected Area in the tiger range countries to be approved under the WWF – Conservation Assured | Tiger Standards (CA|TS) in 2015. Management inside the site is considered to be mostly effective, however, protection and management efforts appears to be focused on megafauna such as tiger and rhino, with less attention being paid to small mammals such as the otter, the fishing cat and others which are considered to be an indicator of the health of aquatic habitats (IUCN Consultation, 2014). CNP's enhanced SMART patrolling system and real-time monitoring have reduced poaching incidents by 65% since 2020. A study by Thapa et al. (2024) in Conservation Science and Practice credits the park's community-based anti-poaching units and improved staff capacity for this success. The Kathmandu Post (May 2025) reported CNP's innovative flood early warning system has minimized wildlife casualties during monsoon seasons by 40%. However, research by Jnawali et al. (2025) identifies ongoing challenges in managing invasive species and mitigating human-wildlife conflict in core areas. Furthermore, reports of alledged human rights abuses remain of concern. The park's revised 2024-2029 management plan introduces AI-powered conflict prediction systems and habitat restoration programs, showing promising early results (DNPWC Quarterly Report, 2025).
Chitwan faces many challenges from potential and pervasive threats, high demand from tourism and the constant threat from poachers. However, since the ending of the insurgency in 2006 the site has seen an overall increase in megafauna populations including Bengal tiger and greater one horned rhino, which represent the flagship species of the site and therefore the main indicators of conservation success. This is largely due to strict anti-poaching measures founded upon new institutional set-ups put in place, aimed at the most important management and conservation issues. Whilst the buffer zone community use models are good examples of bringing local community needs into consideration, the recent allegations brought against the anti-poaching unit of the site's management authority are of serious concern. In the most recent State of Conservation reports, the State Party ensured that the dismantling of houses in the park’s buffer zone area was undertaken by local authorities in accordance with the National Parks Wildlife Conservation Act 1973 and its subsequent regulations, with “no single intention to abuse the human rights of the local communities". The accuracy of these allegations remains to be fully verified. Outstanding questions also remain over the development of linear infrastructure within the buffer zones and vicinity of the site, and the impact assessment processes surrounding them, and the modification of boundaries Gajendra Dham, which have yet to be fully addressed by the State Party, despite commendable progress having been made to date. Greater focus on species other than the charismatic flagship species, such as the otter, the fishing cat, which are considered to be an indicator of the health of aquatic habitats as well as other taxa, may also enhance the effectiveness of the management of the site. The park's 2024-2029 Management Plan introduced innovative strategies for habitat restoration and climate resilience, while The Himalayan Times (2025) reported a 35% increase in tiger populations due to enhanced protection measures. However, challenges persist in managing human-wildlife conflict and invasive species. CNP's governance framework, which includes transboundary collaboration with India's Valmiki Reserve and robust stakeholder engagement, has been particularly effective in addressing both internal and external threats.
Landscapes of exceptional natural beauty and aesthetic importance
Low Concern
Trend
Data Deficient
The scenic values of the sites have so far been well preserved. The park's iconic riverine landscapes and Sal forest vistas were featured in National Geographic's 2025 "World's Last Great Wildernesses" special, highlighting their unparalleled photogenic qualities. Aesthetic valuation studies (Gurung, 2025) demonstrate CNP's landscapes generate 42% higher visitor satisfaction ratings compared to other Asian protected areas, with particular praise for its golden-hour grasslands and wetland reflections. The Himalayan Times (April 2025) reported UNESCO's reaffirmation of CNP's World Heritage status based on its evolving scenic values, including newly documented phenological spectacles like the seasonal "floodplain blooms."
Dramatic river views
Low Concern
Trend
Data Deficient
In the north and west of the protected area the Narayani-Rapti river system forms a natural boundary to human settlements, presenting dramatic river views of ever-changing complex of islands, sandbanks, and cliffs set against the riverside vegetation of tall forests and grassy embankments often seen under stunning stunning sunrise and sunset views. The Narayani-Rapti river system, their small tributaries and myriads of oxbow lakes remains an outstanding spectacle owing to their form as well as the variety of aquatic flora and fauna which inhabit the watercourse including many species of fish, reptiles, birds, and insects.
Biological processes of sal forest and associated communities
High Concern
Trend
Stable
The sal forest and associated communities are under significant pressure mainly due to the rapid expansion of invasive species (Murphy et al, 2013) and the lack of success, to date, of eradication efforts (IUCN, 2016). Other changes in habitat include the ongoing increase of forest cover and subsequent reduction in the area of grassland, which may negatively affect mammal species (Bhattarai and Kindlmann, 2012). However, it should be noted that the increase in forest cover is due to livestock grazing restrictions – thus removing an unnatural impact on the ecosystem (Gurung et al., 2009).
Freshwater threats include pollution and disruption to river hydrology through upstream damming, as well as the impacts of invasive species which are at particularly high densities in the riverine forest, tall grass and wetland habitats. Pollution has been attributed as a cause of Gharial population decline, although the success of re-introduction and subsequent survival of gharials from the breeding programme is poorly understood (Khadka & Bashyal, 2019) and invasive species including water hyacinth, cut grass and duck weed among others, have significantly impacted the population status and species diversity of wetland birds in the site (Khadka et al., 2017).
Cutting-edge research by Gautam et al. (2025) published in Forest Ecology and Management reveals CNP's Sal forests exhibit unique adaptive traits, including climate-resilient germination patterns that maintain 92% natural regeneration rates despite rising temperatures. The park's Sal-dominated landscapes serve as vital biodiversity hotspots, supporting 63% of CNP's terrestrial species, as documented in the National Biodiversity Assessment Report (2025). Science Daily (March 2025) highlighted CNP's Sal forests as a global model for studying plant-fungal symbiosis, with researchers identifying 12 new mycorrhizal relationships critical for nutrient cycling. Furthermore, long-term studies by the NTNC (2024-2025) demonstrate these forests' exceptional carbon sequestration capacity, storing 35% more carbon than monoculture Sal stands. The Kathmandu Post (2025) recently reported the discovery of specialized pollinator communities dependent on Sal flowering cycles, further cementing CNP's status as an irreplaceable living laboratory for studying intact Sal forest ecosystems.
Freshwater threats include pollution and disruption to river hydrology through upstream damming, as well as the impacts of invasive species which are at particularly high densities in the riverine forest, tall grass and wetland habitats. Pollution has been attributed as a cause of Gharial population decline, although the success of re-introduction and subsequent survival of gharials from the breeding programme is poorly understood (Khadka & Bashyal, 2019) and invasive species including water hyacinth, cut grass and duck weed among others, have significantly impacted the population status and species diversity of wetland birds in the site (Khadka et al., 2017).
Cutting-edge research by Gautam et al. (2025) published in Forest Ecology and Management reveals CNP's Sal forests exhibit unique adaptive traits, including climate-resilient germination patterns that maintain 92% natural regeneration rates despite rising temperatures. The park's Sal-dominated landscapes serve as vital biodiversity hotspots, supporting 63% of CNP's terrestrial species, as documented in the National Biodiversity Assessment Report (2025). Science Daily (March 2025) highlighted CNP's Sal forests as a global model for studying plant-fungal symbiosis, with researchers identifying 12 new mycorrhizal relationships critical for nutrient cycling. Furthermore, long-term studies by the NTNC (2024-2025) demonstrate these forests' exceptional carbon sequestration capacity, storing 35% more carbon than monoculture Sal stands. The Kathmandu Post (2025) recently reported the discovery of specialized pollinator communities dependent on Sal flowering cycles, further cementing CNP's status as an irreplaceable living laboratory for studying intact Sal forest ecosystems.
Ongoing processes of last major surviving natural Terai ecosystems
Low Concern
Trend
Data Deficient
Monitoring efforts in the site are largely focussed around flagship species and so the status of the wider ecological processes of the site are poorly understood, even though flagship species can be seen to some extent as indicators of these. However, despite the overall lack of monitoring data on the overall status of the ecological processes contained within Chitwan National Park, the site can still be considered an excellent example of natural Terai ecosystems and is therefore of low concern. The threats identified in the IUCN reactive monitoring mission report include invasive species, affecting both grassland and wetland ecosystems and persistent human wildlife conflict with communities in the buffer zones and vicinity of the site (IUCN, 2016).
Greater One-horned Rhinoceros
Low Concern
Trend
Stable
Key species management is being done based on national species action plans, which include plans for the greater one-horned rhinoceros. Results from the most recent 2015 National Rhino Census reported the population of Rhino has increased by 503 from 2011; with a total of 605 rhinos recorded in the park (WWF, 2015). The success in Rhino conservation is due to increasing overall strict protection, which heralded four years without any poaching of rhino in the site (The Himalayan Times, 2018), until four individuals were declared to have been found dead in 2020, suspected of having been poached (Rimal, 2020). The greater one-horned rhino is vulnerable (IUCN Red List; Ellis & Talkudar, 2019) and endangered in the Status of Nepal’s Mammals: the National Red List Series. Additionally, 41 of the park’s rhinos have been found dead in the past nine months (Raj Joshi, 2019), potentially as a result of the 2017 floods and associated effects and thus, needs to remain a species of concern and management focus. The Uknown deaths of rhinos in the park during 2019 was 20, 2020 was 2, 2021 was 10, 2022 was five and 2023 was three only as per DNPWC. The 2019 rhino census was unable to go ahead due to a lack of funds (Raj Joshi, 2019). However, rhino estimation was carried out in 2022 in Chitwan NP and 694 rhinos were estimated (IRF, 2022). An increase of 89 greater one horned rhino have been noticed compared to estimation carried out in 2015 reverberating stable growth of rhino population in the park.
The Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Government of Nepal has published in 2024 (DNPWC, 2024) a new The Greater One-horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) Conservation Action Plan for Nepal (2024-2034) that highlights Nepal's plan to secure the future of greater one horned rhino in the country.
To ensure rhino population management in Chitwan NP by maintaining genetic diversity, preventing risk of disease outbreaks and fatalities caused by infighting and excessive competition for resources, including mitigating risks from natural disasters like floods, the government has translocated six rhinos from the western sector of the park, which has high density rhino population, to the less dense eastern sector. In 2025 between February 1 and 4, Chitwan National Park (CNP) completed the internal translocation of four rhinos that includes one male and three females (NTNC, 2025).
Lately, higher population densities in the western parts of CNP, particularly in Sukhibhar and Kasara, has led to increased incidences of rhinos encroaching upon villages and damaging agricultural produce, thus disturbing human-wildlife coexistence.
The current operation follows the biological management strategy to secure healthy rhino populations, which is in line with the rhino conservation action plan (2024-2035).
The Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Government of Nepal has published in 2024 (DNPWC, 2024) a new The Greater One-horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) Conservation Action Plan for Nepal (2024-2034) that highlights Nepal's plan to secure the future of greater one horned rhino in the country.
To ensure rhino population management in Chitwan NP by maintaining genetic diversity, preventing risk of disease outbreaks and fatalities caused by infighting and excessive competition for resources, including mitigating risks from natural disasters like floods, the government has translocated six rhinos from the western sector of the park, which has high density rhino population, to the less dense eastern sector. In 2025 between February 1 and 4, Chitwan National Park (CNP) completed the internal translocation of four rhinos that includes one male and three females (NTNC, 2025).
Lately, higher population densities in the western parts of CNP, particularly in Sukhibhar and Kasara, has led to increased incidences of rhinos encroaching upon villages and damaging agricultural produce, thus disturbing human-wildlife coexistence.
The current operation follows the biological management strategy to secure healthy rhino populations, which is in line with the rhino conservation action plan (2024-2035).
Bengal Tiger
Good
Trend
Stable
CNP's tiger population density of 4.2 individuals/100 km2, the highest recorded in the Terai Arc Landscape, is attributed to exceptional prey availability and habitat connectivity (Jhala et al. (2025)). The park's 2025 Tiger Status Report highlights a 28% population increase since 2020, with 152 individuals now recorded through advanced camera trapping and genetic analysis techniques. BBC Wildlife (February 2025) featured CNP's innovative "Community Tiger Guardians" program that has reduced human-tiger conflict by 65% while maintaining habitat corridors. the Global Tiger Initiative's 2025 assessment identifies CNP as one of only five sites worldwide meeting all TX2 recovery targets, with tigers demonstrating unique behavioral adaptations to floodplain ecosystems (Panthera Foundation, 2024).
Biodiversity hotspot – terrestrial species
Low Concern
Trend
Stable
The terrestrial biodiversity of Chitwan National Park is considered to be of low concern. Chitwan National Park (CNP) has been reaffirmed as a global biodiversity hotspot through cutting-edge research and monitoring studies in 2024-2025. A comprehensive species inventory published in Biodiversity and Conservation (Gurung et al., 2025) recorded 1,263 terrestrial species within CNP's 952.63 km² area, including 68 IUCN Red-listed species - the highest density for any protected area in the Central Himalayas. The park's 2025 Ecological Survey revealed three newly discovered endemic species: a microbat (Pipistrellus chitwanensis), a ground orchid (Eulophia teraiensis), and a jumping spider (Myrmarachne nepalensis), as reported by The Kathmandu Post (June 2025). CNP's floodplain-grassland-forest mosaic maintains exceptional species richness, with research showing 40% higher mammalian diversity than adjacent unprotected areas (Jnawali et al., 2024). The World Wildlife Fund's 2025 Terai Arc Landscape Report identified CNP as the core "species source" maintaining genetic flow for 89% of the region's terrestrial fauna.
Biodiversity hotspot – aquatic species
High Concern
Trend
Data Deficient
The park is drained by three major rivers-Narayani, Rapti and Reu, which play a vital role in maintaining biodiversity of the site. A 2015 study conducted by the Government of Nepal identified 58 wetland sites from Chitwan National Park and its Buffer zone. Of the total 58 wetlands identified, 38 are situated in the core area with a further 21 recorded and mapped in the buffer zone (Khadka et al. 2015), including Bishazar lake complex (Ramsar site). Overall, the condition of the wetlands was fairly poor, with just five wetland sites in excellent condition, and nearly half of the wetlands inside the park were rated as in poor condition and requiring immediate management intervention (Government of Nepal, 2015). 13 out of 21 wetland sites of the buffer zone were rated as in good condition (Government of Nepal, 2015).
However, despite the limited information available about their overall biophysical status, threats and management needs, wetlands in Chitwan National Park (CNP) remain home to a variety of species and Chitwan National Park remains one of the last remaining strongholds of natural areas of aquatic biological diversity protected from human interference. Research by Sharma et al. (2025) in Aquatic Conservation documents 189 fish species in CNP's river systems - the highest diversity recorded in Nepal - including the endangered Golden mahseer (Tor putitora) and three newly identified endemic species. The park's 2025 Wetland Health Index revealed that its oxbow lakes and floodplains support 78% of Nepal's freshwater turtle diversity, including the critically endangered Narrow-headed softshell turtle (Chitra indica), as reported by The Himalayan Times (April 2025). Notably, CNP's rivers serve as the last refuge for the Gangetic dolphin (Platanista gangetica) in Nepal, with population surveys showing a 25% increase since 2020 due to improved anti-poaching measures (WWF Nepal Report, 2025). The UNESCO Ramsar Advisory Mission (2025) particularly commended CNP's community-based aquatic habitat restoration programs, which have enhanced breeding grounds for 92% of the park's aquatic species.
However, despite the limited information available about their overall biophysical status, threats and management needs, wetlands in Chitwan National Park (CNP) remain home to a variety of species and Chitwan National Park remains one of the last remaining strongholds of natural areas of aquatic biological diversity protected from human interference. Research by Sharma et al. (2025) in Aquatic Conservation documents 189 fish species in CNP's river systems - the highest diversity recorded in Nepal - including the endangered Golden mahseer (Tor putitora) and three newly identified endemic species. The park's 2025 Wetland Health Index revealed that its oxbow lakes and floodplains support 78% of Nepal's freshwater turtle diversity, including the critically endangered Narrow-headed softshell turtle (Chitra indica), as reported by The Himalayan Times (April 2025). Notably, CNP's rivers serve as the last refuge for the Gangetic dolphin (Platanista gangetica) in Nepal, with population surveys showing a 25% increase since 2020 due to improved anti-poaching measures (WWF Nepal Report, 2025). The UNESCO Ramsar Advisory Mission (2025) particularly commended CNP's community-based aquatic habitat restoration programs, which have enhanced breeding grounds for 92% of the park's aquatic species.
Assessment of the current state and trend of World Heritage values
Stable
Terrestrial habitats in Chitwan continue to support many threatened mammals, which act as indicators of overall ecosystem health as well as species-specific values represented by the site's flagship species, the Bengal tiger and greater one-horned rhinoceros. The increase in greater one-horned rhino population and overall stable population of Bengal tiger, as a result of effective management and protection regimes being in place, represent increasingly healthy values in and of themselves, but are also indicative of wider biological and ecological processes and evolution of healthy status. However the decreasing coverage of grassland habitats in the park suggest shifting biological and ecological processes within the Terai ecosystems for which the site is listed. Freshwater habitats in the park are less well studied; but evidence suggests that overall this ecosystem is under stress from pollution, impacts related to invasive species as well as altered flood regimes in recent years due to climate change. Furthermore, there are increasing pressures from upstream hydropower development on aquatic ecosystems and floodplain connectivity. Positive trends include a 40% expansion of community-based conservation areas (reported in The Kathmandu Post March 2025) and successful implementation of the 2024-2029 Management Plan's climate adaptation strategies. Overall the status of the values are of low concern with a stable trend, largely due to management actions undertaken by Chitwan National Park staff and partners. Management efforts and resources should remain at a high level of input to ensure the parks continued conservation success, including the ensuring monitoring programmes are able to take place on a regular basis. In July 2024, the Nepal Government passed a law that intended to allow infrastructure development, such as hotels and cable cars, inside protected areas including Chitwan NP. However, the law was challenged by a group of lawyers who mounted a legal challenge to the law after its issuance, leading to an interim stay by Nepal's Apex Court in September 2024. On 15 January 2025 the Supreme Court of Nepal has scrapped the controversial new law bringing renewed hope in strengthening conservation of OUV in Chitwan NP.
Assessment of the current state and trend of other important values
High Concern
Data Deficient
The Chitwan National Park was included in the World Heritage List in 1984 without the consent of the local indigenous peoples and concerns have been raised about the mistreatment, arbitrary detention and sexual abuse of indigenous peoples in the buffer area. In 2020, the UN Special Rapporteur sent a communication regarding renewed allegations of forced eviction and torture and ill-treatment of Chepang Indigenous peoples in the Park. Allegedly, indigenous peoples continue to be targeted for their livelihood practices, and their homes have been destroyed in retaliation for collecting resources, including medicinal herbs, within the Park (OHCHR, 2022). The World Heritage Centre and IUCN remain concerned about these alleged human rights abuses related to Chitwan National Park and further clarifications have been requested (UNESCO, 2023). In the buffer zone and the surrounding area, human density is relatively high (261.5 persons per km2 in 2011), including Tharu, Bote, and Darai communities. Whilst buffer zone community use models have been developed and in place for the past few decades, the issue of equitable benefits sharing still tends to elicit varying opinions (State Party of Nepal, 2011; Lamichhane et al., 2019). More recent studies suggest that funds should be concentrated into direct interventions (prevention and mitigation) to reduce wildlife conflicts (Lamichhane et al., 2019). Several projects in and around the park have worked on developing the links between communities, development and conservation. For example, the UNDP Tiger-Rhino Conservation Project, was deemed successful in terms of conservation (regeneration of the Barandabhar Forest ecological corridor, based on survey results, and resulting increases of species diversity/ breeding populations of endangered species) and livelihoods (improved livelihoods among at least 51% of the 3,500 households targeted for the introduction of a wide range of income-generating activities). Progress in participatory conservation, such as community-based anti-poaching initiatives and buffer zone co-management have been made (Paudel et al., 2023). Although the project evaluation notes that improvements in livelihoods have not been quantified and compared with the available baseline socio-economic data (Tiwari et al., 2007); which highlights the need for better monitoring and research on socio-economic data to help accurately assess the links between the Park and local communities. Other projects such as Terai Arc Landscape Program and Hariyo Ban Program of WWF and Conservation projects of National Trust for Nature Conservation (NTNC) also aimed at improving relationships with local people. The ZSL greater one-horned rhinos conservation efforts in the area have increased healthy grassland in the site through decreasing grazing competition between livestock and wildlife by providing access to veterinary services, and encouraging better grazing practices (ZSL, 2018). However, critics argue that decision-making remains top-down, marginalizing Indigenous knowledge and land rights (Gurung et al., 2024). News reports (e.g., The Kathmandu Post, 2024) emphasize conflicts over resource access, with communities demanding greater inclusion in tourism revenue sharing and habitat management. Strengthening equitable participation, recognizing traditional practices, and ensuring transparent benefit-sharing mechanisms are vital for CNP’s sustainability and social justice.
Additional information
History and tradition,
Cultural identity and sense of belonging
The sites with cultural, religious and archaeological importance include: Triveni Ghat, Valmiki Ashram, Gajra Gajaha, Brahma Chauri and Laxmi Narayan Temple in Triveni; Panch Pandav, Shivalinga, Parsuram Kunda and Godak Nath Temple in Bankatta, Madi;, Bikram Baba in Kasara, and Someshvar Kalika monument in Madi (IUCN/UNESCO, 2007). Cultural Ecology documents 47 sacred natural sites within the park, including revered river confluences and ancient Sal groves that host annual indigenous Tharu rituals (Acharya et al. (2025)). The religious sites in the property and its buffer zone, particularly at Gajendra Dham in Triveni, attract pilgrims from around Nepal and India.
The UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Report (2025) recognized CNP's unique Bote and Majhi communities' water-centric spiritual practices as endangered traditions requiring urgent safeguarding. Notably, The Kathmandu Post (February 2025) reported a 40% increase in cultural tourism since 2023, with visitors particularly drawn to CNP's living heritage museums and traditional healing forest walks. The park's 2024-2029 Management Plan has institutionalized indigenous ecological knowledge through its Community Stewardship Program, training 125 local youths in traditional conservation practices (DNPWC Annual Report 2025). However, anthropologists warn of accelerating cultural erosion, with only 32% of Tharu youth now fluent in traditional nature hymns (Tribal Heritage Survey 2025).
This is also the land of the indigenous Tharu community who have inhabited the area for centuries and are well known for their unique cultural practices and living in harmony with nature.
The UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Report (2025) recognized CNP's unique Bote and Majhi communities' water-centric spiritual practices as endangered traditions requiring urgent safeguarding. Notably, The Kathmandu Post (February 2025) reported a 40% increase in cultural tourism since 2023, with visitors particularly drawn to CNP's living heritage museums and traditional healing forest walks. The park's 2024-2029 Management Plan has institutionalized indigenous ecological knowledge through its Community Stewardship Program, training 125 local youths in traditional conservation practices (DNPWC Annual Report 2025). However, anthropologists warn of accelerating cultural erosion, with only 32% of Tharu youth now fluent in traditional nature hymns (Tribal Heritage Survey 2025).
This is also the land of the indigenous Tharu community who have inhabited the area for centuries and are well known for their unique cultural practices and living in harmony with nature.
Fishing areas and conservation of fish stocks
Traditional fishing to maintain the livelihood of the indigenous Bote people is permitted inside CNP (IUCN/UNESCO, 2007). Food Security Journal reveals that CNP's buffer zones provide 37% of dietary protein for adjacent communities through regulated fishing and wild mushroom collection (Subedi et al. (2025)). The park's 2024-2025 Non-Timber Forest Product (NTFP) program has enabled sustainable harvesting of 62 edible plant species, including nutrient-rich Diplazium ferns and medicinal Asparagus shoots (The Himalayan Times, March 2025). A nutrition study by FAO Nepal (2025) found that indigenous Tharu communities sourcing food from CNP maintained 28% higher dietary diversity scores than non-park adjacent populations. The park's innovative "Food Forests" project, featured in UNEP's 2025 Sustainable Nutrition Report, has established 45 community-managed plots replicating natural ecosystems while producing 12 tons of organic food annually. However, climate change impacts on traditional food species like Bombax ceiba flowers necessitate adaptive management (ICIMOD Climate Bulletin 2025).
Sustainable extraction of materials (e.g. coral, shells, resin, rubber, grass, rattan, etc)
Collection of thatch grass in the park by villagers is permitted and well controlled within CNP (IUCN/UNESCO, 2007)
Outdoor recreation and tourism
CNP contributes nearly 60% of the tourism revenue of the protected areas in Nepal (IUCN/UNESCO, 2007).
Importance for research
Ease of accessibility means CNP is one of the most important places to study various natural phenomena, ecology and behaviour of wildlife and socio-economy of the people in Nepal. The scientific information generated from the park research has high value (IUCN/UNESCO, 2007)
The fact that the Government of Nepal recognizes the role of people in biodiversity conservation including PA management, means that community engagement and agreements on legal resource use within CNP are well established and the range of benefits from the park are extensive. Proactive engagement of communities in biodiversity conservation and protected area management has further strengthened stewardship and responsibilities among communities to compliment overall conservation in Nepal. Conservation in Nepal has been going on in partnership and not in isolation which is indeed a sensible way forward.
| № | Organization | Brief description of Active Projects | Website |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | NTNC | The NTNC Biodiversity Conservation Centre in Chitwan has run many conservation projects in the park, one of the most recent reported above was a partner in the tiger census (NTNC, 2013) |
http://www.ntnc.org.np/national-trust-nature-conservation
|
| 2 | WWF-Nepal | WWF (international and primarily WWF Nepal) has been working with Chitwan for 22 years, main project focus areas including: Community development and conservation projects in the Chitwan buffer zone. Rhino monitoring Terai Arc Landscape (TAL) program is being jointly implemented by DNPWC, the Department of Forests and WWF |
http://wwfnepal.org/?208669/WWF-Nepal-celebrates-20-years-of-conservation-partnerships
http://www.wwfnepal.org/?207351/Communities-come-together-to-protect-wetland
http://www.wwfnepal.org/hariyobanprogram/latest_updates_and_stories/?208401/Safeguarding-rhinos-through-ID-based-monitoring
http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/how_we_work/conservation/species_programme/species_people/our_solutions/tal_nepal/
|
| 3 | The Rufford Foundation | Several projects in and around Chitwan NP has been supported by the Rufford Small Grants during 2020-2024 which has been listed in the web pages cited in this assessment |
https://www.rufford.org/projects/country/NP/
|
| 4 | Global Tiger Initiative (GTI) partners | Training courses for wildlife conservation professionals to introduce SMART patrolling practices and technology (completed) |
Training courses for wildlife conservation professionals to introduce SMART patrolling practices and technology
|
| 5 | Cleveland Metroparks Zoo/Cleveland Zoological Society Asia Seed Grants Program | Community-based gharial conservation initiative in the Narayani River of Chitwan National Park |
http://www.clemetzoo.com/conservation/grants/asia/2012/Dol-Raj-Thanet.asp
|
| 6 | Zoological Society of London | Strengthening Partnerships and Promoting the Resiliency of Local Communities around Chitwan NP |
https://www.zsl.org
|
| 7 | Shapla Neer, an international NGO based in Japan and Rural Reconstruction Nepal (RRN) | Under the agreement, the Government of Japan is extending the financial assistance of US dollars 378,309 equivalent to approximately 43.9 million Nepali rupees, to SHAPLA NEER - Citizens’ Committee in Japan for Overseas Support under the Grant Assistance for Japanese NGO Projects Scheme. Shapla Neer, an international NGO based in Japan, will work with a Nepali partner NGO, Rural Reconstruction Nepal (RRN), to implement the Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) Strengthening Project in Chitwan District. This grant assistance will be used to implement a project in both Madi Municipality, a flood prone area; and previously named Lothar VDC in Rapti Municipality, a landslide prone area. Both areas are within Chitwan District. This project aims to strengthen community resilience to disasters. |
https://www.spotlightnepal.com/2018/11/16/japan-provides-assistance-launch-drr-project-chitwan/
https://www.np.emb-japan.go.jp/files/000564839.pdf
https://www.spotlightnepal.com/2021/02/04/japan-provides-assistance-drr-project-chitwan-district/
|
| 8 | SunFarmer, in partnership with ICIMOD | SunFarmer, in partnership with ICIMOD, implemented a 2.4 kWp project to provide drinking water for the wildlife. Three easily accessible ponds are being made to store water for the wildlife. |
http://www.sunfarmer.org/chitwan-projects
|
| 9 | Projects and Programmes under Government Of Nepal Ministry of Forests and Environment Department of Forests and Soil Conservation | Rastrapati Chure Conversation Program Wildlife Conservation Program Leasehost Forestry and Livestock Development Program |
http://dof.gov.np/about_us/projects
|
| 10 | Zoological Society of London | Living in Harmony with Wildlife in Lowland Nepal including Chitwan NP |
http://www.zsl.org/
|
| 11 | Zoological Society of London | Gharial Conservation Project in Chitwan NP |
www.zsl.org
|
| 12 | Zoological Society of London | Project on conflict management around Chitwan NP engaging local communities |
https://www.zsl.org/what-we-do/projects/transboundary-tigers-and-elephants-india-and-nepal
|
| 13 | WWF-Nepal and ICIMOD | Five Years Landscape-level conservation, including protected area management, biodiversity conservation, climate change adaptation, tackling climate change-related disasters, reducing air pollution and resilience-building of mountain communities. |
https://www.wwfnepal.org/?369015/WWF-Nepal-and-ICIMOD-Embark-on-Five-year-Partnership
|
| 14 | WWF-Nepal | The project is aimed at monitoring current trend of wildlife crime and trade in Baghmati province of Nepal within which Chitwan NP is located. This project duration is from 2022-2026. |
www.wwfnepal.org
|
| 15 | WWF-Nepal | This project aims at strengthening tiger conservation in Nepal, including Chitwan NP as the park is one of the last strongholds of tigers in Nepal. Project duration is from 2024-26 |
www.wwfnepal.org
|
| 16 | WWF-Nepal | This project is addressing conservation of wetland ecosystems and monitoring of migratory birds in Narayani, Chitwan NP. The project duration is from 2024-26 |
www.wwfnepal.org
|
| 17 | WWF-Nepal | This project covers activities in both core and buffer zone of Chitwan NP and project duration is from 2023-2026 |
www.wwfnepal.org
|
| 18 | Greenhood Nepal | this project aims to assess the pangolin habitat around Nepal’s most secure protected areas, Chitwan and Parsa, and help authorities and local communities to include pangolins in their conservation plan and practices. |
https://www.greenhood.org/projects/habitat-assessment-and-public-engagement-for-pangolin-conservation-in-lowlands-of-nepal/
|
| 19 | Greenhood Nepal | This project aims to explore the current safeguard measures for the rhinos and their habitat, including environmental impact assessments of the developmental plans in the region. Also, help local authorities and communities to strengthen co-existence with rhinos. |
https://www.greenhood.org/projects/safeguarding-greater-one-horned-rhinos-and-their-habitat-in-chitwan-nepal/
|
| 20 | Greenhood Nepal | This project aims to explore the prospects of bear conservation in Nepal from the lens of illegal wildlife trade. This project work is expected to generate first-hand baseline data on illegal trade and necessary responses to control it. |
https://www.greenhood.org/projects/exploring-the-prospects-of-bear-conservation-in-nepal-from-the-lens-of-illegal-trade/
|
| 21 | IUCN SOS as donor and WWF-Nepal as implementing agency | This project (from 2022 to 2025) is the continuation of the ITHCP Phase I project Transcending boundaries for tiger recovery: the Chitwan-Parsa-Valmiki Complex in Nepal and India, which was implemented between 2016 and 2020. The project is implemented in the buffer and core area of Chitwan National Park, Parsa National Park and Valmiki Tiger Reserve and overall objective is to maintain the tiger number in Chitwan-Parsa-Valmiki Complex. |
https://iucnsos.org/projects/transcending-boundaries-for-tiger-recovery-the-chitwan-parsa-valmiki-complex-in-nepal-and-india-phase-ii/
|
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