Sinharaja Forest Reserve
Country
Sri Lanka
Inscribed in
1988
Criteria
(ix)
(x)
The conservation outlook for this site has been assessed as "significant concern" in the latest assessment cycle. Explore the Conservation Outlook Assessment for the site below. You have the option to access the summary, or the detailed assessment.
Located in south-west Sri Lanka, Sinharaja is the country's last viable area of primary tropical rainforest. More than 60% of the trees are endemic and many of them are considered rare. There is much endemic wildlife, especially birds, but the reserve is also home to over 50% of Sri Lanka's endemic species of mammals and butterflies, as well as many kinds of insects, reptiles and rare amphibians. © UNESCO
Summary
2020 Conservation Outlook
Finalised on
02 Dec 2020
Significant concern
Current state and trend of VALUES
Low Concern
Trend
Data Deficient
Overall THREATS
Overall PROTECTION and MANAGEMENT
Full assessment
Finalised on
02 Dec 2020
Description of values
Rare, threatened and endemic invertebrate species
Criterion
(x)
The endemic invertebrates in Sinharaja include nine species of butterflies and 12 species of land snails (Bambaradeniya et al., 2003). An endemic tree-climbing crab (Ceylonthelphusa scansor) was discovered in Sinharaja during the mid 1990’s (Ng, 1995). A new odonate species was discovered in the buffer zone of the forest in 2009 (van der Poorten, 2009). A study on species richness of ants in a 0.6 ha research plot in Sinharaja has documented 100 species, including the endemic and relict ant Aneuretus simoni (Gunawardena et al., 2012).
Rare, threatened and endemic mammals
Criterion
(x)
75% of the mammal species (15 of 20) endemic to Sri Lanka occur in Sinharaja (Bambaradeniya et al., 2003; Rajeev and Vidanapathirana, 2012). A small mammal species new to science (Sinharaja Shrew - Crocidura hikmiya) was discovered in the Sinharaja World Heritage site in 2007 (Meegaskumbura et al., 2007). This species is listed as Globally Endangered (EN) by IUCN.
Rare, threatened and endemic birds
Criterion
(x)
Over 150 species of birds have been recorded in Sinharaja. A majority of the bird species endemic to Sri Lanka (33 species) occur in Sinharaja (> 30 species) (Bambaradeniya et al., 2006). An owl species new to science (Serendib Scops Owl – Otus thilohoffmanni) was discovered in the Sinharaja World Heritage site in 2004 (Warakagoda and Rasmussen, 2004). This species is listed as Globally Endangered (EN) by IUCN.
Rare, threatened and endemic reptiles
Criterion
(x)
A new canopy-dwelling species of colubrid snake (Dendrelaphis sinharajensis sp. nov.) was recently discovered in the Sinharaja World Heritage site, as well as a new species of the endemic scincid lizard (genus Lankascincus) (Wickramasinghe, 2016; Wickramasinghe, 2020). At present, a total of 36 reptile species have been identified in southern and eastern parts of the Sinharaja Forest Reserve of which 19 are endemic to Sri Lanka. Among them there are 5 vulnerable species, 4 endangered species and 5 critically endangered species recorded (Samarawickrama et al., 2019).
Rare, threatened and endemic freshwater fish
Criterion
(x)
Of the 19 species of freshwater fish inhabiting the streams and rivers in Sinharaja, 50% are endemic (Bambaradeniya et al., 2006).
Endemic Pteridophytes
Criterion
(x)
63 species of pteridophytes have been recorded in 0.36 ha of randomly placed sample plots in a single hill in Sinharaja, which includes 15 endemic species (Ranil et al., 2007). A new tree fern species (Cyathea srilankensis) was discovered in Sinharaja in 2010 (Ranil et al., 2010).
Rare and endemic plant species
Criterion
(x)
Protecting the last viable remnant of Sri Lanka’s tropical lowland rainforest, Sinharaja is home to at least 139 endemic plant species within two main types of forest: remnants of Dipterocarpus in the valleys and on the lower slopes, and secondary forest and scrub where the original forest cover has been removed. Sixteen of the endemic plant species within the site are considered rare, including endemic palms Loxococcus rupicola and Atalantia rotundifolia (World Heritage Committee, 2014). Among the Dipterocarpaceae – trees dominating the forest canopy in Sinhraja, endemism is greater than 90% (Gunatilleke and Gunatilleke, 1980; Gunatilleke et al., 1995).
Rare and endemic Orchids
Criterion
(x)
About 80 orchid species have been recorded in Sinharaja, of which 32 species are endemic (Rajeev and Vidanapathirana, 2012). In the last years, a new species in the family Orchidaceae (Gastrodia gunatillekeorum) was found in the lowland rainforest of Sinharaja (Bandara et al., 2020).
Rare, threatened and endemic amphibians
Criterion
(x)
The eastern corner of Sinharaja (e.g., Morningside area) is considered as a hotspot for endemic amphibians. This small area harbors 10 Pseudophilautus species of which 5 are Critically Endangered (Ps. procax, Ps. papillosus, Ps. lunatus, Ps. simba and Ps. limbus), 4 are Endangered (Ps. poppiae, Ps. ocularis, Ps. auratus and Ps. decoris) and 1 is Data Deficient (Ps. regius).
The largest and relatively undisturbed remnant of Sri Lanka’s tropical lowland rain forest
Criterion
(ix)
Sinharaja Forest Reserve is the largest relatively undisturbed remnant of Sri Lanka's tropical lowland rainforest; over 60% of the trees are endemic and many of these are rare; and there are 21 endemic bird species as well as a number of rare insects, reptiles and amphibians. The site’s flora is a relic of Gondwanaland and provides an important component to our scientific understanding of continental drift and an outstanding site for the study of the processes of biological evolution (World Heritage Committee, 2014).
Assessment information
Sinharaja is currently facing many conservation issues that can be broadly classified under habitat destruction/degradation, over-exploitation of species, and spread of invasive alien species. Specific actions are needed to address these existing threats.
Hunting and trapping
(Poaching )
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
Outside site
Illegal poaching of wild animals such as sambar, mouse deer and wild boar is reported in Sinharaja. Set up of noose traps is a major conservation issue to the small population of endangered leopards in Sinharaja (Bambaradeniya et al., 2006; Chamikara, 2013; Rajeev and Vidanapathirana, 2012).
Tourism/ Recreation Areas
(Expansion of tourist hotels and guest houses )
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Several tourist hotels and guest houses have been constructed around Sinharaja over the past decade, leading to adverse issues such as garbage, storm water runoff, pollution of waterways, forest clearance, and disturbance to wildlife (Chamikara, 2013; Rajeev and Vidanapathirana, 2012).
Increased visitation during peak seasons is also driving this fragile ecosystem beyond its carrying capacity especially on the two most popular routes through Kudawa and Pitadeniya entry points (IUCN Consultation, 2020).
Increased visitation during peak seasons is also driving this fragile ecosystem beyond its carrying capacity especially on the two most popular routes through Kudawa and Pitadeniya entry points (IUCN Consultation, 2020).
Crops
(Encroachment of forest and its buffer zone areas for tea and cardamom cultivation.
)
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
Outside site
Encroachment of forest for tea and cardamom cultivation is a major issue in the northern areas of Sinharaja, resulting in the loss of valuable habitats (Bambaradeniya et al., 2006; Surasinghe, 2007; Gunatilleke, 2011; Chamikara, 2013; Samarawickrama et al., 2019).
Utility / Service Lines
(Power lines )
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Outside site
Power lines associated with mini hydro power stations have led to forest clearance in strips (Chamikara, 2013; Rajeev and Vidanapathirana, 2012).
Logging/ Wood Harvesting
(Illegal logging )
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
Outside site
Illegal logging has previously been reported, especially in the northern region (Bambaradeniya et al., 2006; Chamikara, 2013; Rajeev and Vidanapathirana, 2012).
Fire/ Fire Suppression
(Deliberate fires set off by villages )
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Deliberate forest fires created by villagers for illegal hunting and/or clearance of forest have been observed in the north-eastern area of Sinharaja, which is a hotspot for endemic and threatened herpetofauna (Surasinghe, 2007).
Mining/ Quarrying
(Illegal gem mining in forest and its buffer zone areas, (including in streams and rivers) )
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
Outside site
Illegal gem mining is being carried out by organized gangs in a discrete manner inside the forest, leading to habitat degradation of forest and stream/river habitats (Bambaradeniya et al., 2006; Surasinghe, 2007; Gunatilleke, 2011; Chamikara, 2013).
Renewable Energy
(Mini-hydropower development projects )
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
Outside site
The construction of dams, weirs and ponds largely affects the hydrology and ecology of the streams and rivers they impounded (Bambaradeniya et al., 2006; Chamikara, 2013). These projects lead to i) alterations of the river flow, volume and velocity, ii) changes in the sediment transport and river channel processes, which increases erosion downstream of the dam, and iii) blocks the migration routes for many fish species (Geosrilanka, 2016; Rodrigo, 2016a, b; Rainforest protectors of Sri Lanka, 2019). Concerns have been particularly raised regarding the construction of the Koskulana mini-hydropower plant within the buffer zone of Sinharaja. Due to the low flow, the plant would only generate a very small amount of energy (0.6MW), but cause irreversible impacts on soil erosion, the ecosystem and its many endemic freshwater species (EJAtlas, 2017). No Environmental Impact Assessment has been undertaken and there has been accusations of bribes (Daily Mirror, 2016).
Housing/ Urban Areas
(Construction of dwellings and village expansion )
Outside site
Expansion of villages is evident in the northern part of Sinharaja, resulting in the clearance of forest in the buffer zone as well as in the interior areas (Chamikara, 2013; Rajeev and Vidanapathirana, 2012).
Crops
(Forest loss and conversion into agricultural land)
Inside site
, Widespread(15-50%)
Outside site
Sinharaja has seen a Gradual loss of forest cover and degradation of habitats due to conversion of forest into agricultural land (Bambaradeniya et al., 2006; Surasinghe, 2007; Gunatilleke, 2011; Chamikara, 2013; Samarawickrama et al. 2019). The forests are facing many threats, however, among them issues of bio piracy, loss of forest genetic resources, illegal forest utilisation practices, illegal forest encroachments and logging are major issues (Samarawickrama, 2019).
Invasive Non-Native/ Alien Species
(Spread of invasive alien plants in degraded areas )
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
Outside site
Some species of woody plants (e.g. Sweitenia macrophylla, Alstonia macrophylla) that were introduced to Sinharaja for reforestation purposes are now spreading in an invasive manner in some areas of the forest. Herbaceous invasive alien plants, such as Wedelia trilobata, Clidemia hirta and Lanatana camara, have also established thick covers along disturbed areas (e.g. trails) in the forest (Bambaradeniya et al., 2006). In the eastern lower montane sector, Psidium cattleianum (strawberry guava) is spreading in the Morningside and Hadapanella areas, which are currently outside the Sinharaja World Heritage site boundary, but the potential of its invasion in to the site is high. Similarly, there is a likelihood of Tibouchina and Clusia rosea spreading in the eastern part.
Agricultural effluents
(Misuse of agrochemicals in tea plantations bordering forest leading to land pollution and runoff into streams )
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
Outside site
Agrochemical usage for pests and weed management is common in the tea plantations around Sinharaja, leading to the pollution of streams due to agrochemical runoff (Bambaradeniya et al., 2006; Surasinghe, 2007; Chamikara, 2013; Rajiv and Vidanapathirana, 2012).
Other Biological Resource Use
(Illegal collection of rare and endemic plants and animals for international trade )
Inside site
, Widespread(15-50%)
Outside site
Wildlife smuggling and illegal collection of living plant and animal species from Sinharaja (e.g. freshwater fish, reptiles, molluscs, scorpions, butterflies and other insects, orchids, Sri Lankan agarwood etc.) for commercial trade is a high threat to rare and endemic species (Bambaradeniya et al., 2006; Surasinghe, 2007; Gunatilleke, 2011; Chamikara, 2013; Rodrigo, 2019c; Samarawickrama, 2019; Masakorala, 2020). In recent times, there has been a wave of illegal extraction of Gyrinops walla trees, which are valued for their fungus-mediated resin known as ‘SL Agarwood’ (Subasinghe and Hettiarachchi, 2015; IUCN Consultation, 2017; Subasinghe, 2017).
According to a TRAFFIC report (Rodrigo, 2019a), a survey of pet markets has revealed sudden spikes of Sri Lankan lizards in to the European markets. The majority (58 percent) of the Sri Lankan lizards in the market are identified as having been bred in captivity, however, many of the specimens on sale are adults rather than juveniles — indicating they were likely caught from the wild. Smugglers target egg-bearing female lizards; the rationale is that, soon after capture, the female will lay the eggs and they will hatch, thus bearing baby lizards that are, technically at least, born in captivity (Rodrigo, 2019a).
Regardless of regulations, bioprospecting, biopiracy, biological resource and wildlife smuggling has become a significant issue. Authorities have so far failed to control these activities in this site, and they need to be addressed through both national and international laws to preserve species and ecosystems (Kumara, 2016; Masakorala, 2020).
According to a TRAFFIC report (Rodrigo, 2019a), a survey of pet markets has revealed sudden spikes of Sri Lankan lizards in to the European markets. The majority (58 percent) of the Sri Lankan lizards in the market are identified as having been bred in captivity, however, many of the specimens on sale are adults rather than juveniles — indicating they were likely caught from the wild. Smugglers target egg-bearing female lizards; the rationale is that, soon after capture, the female will lay the eggs and they will hatch, thus bearing baby lizards that are, technically at least, born in captivity (Rodrigo, 2019a).
Regardless of regulations, bioprospecting, biopiracy, biological resource and wildlife smuggling has become a significant issue. Authorities have so far failed to control these activities in this site, and they need to be addressed through both national and international laws to preserve species and ecosystems (Kumara, 2016; Masakorala, 2020).
Roads/ Railroads
(Road construction through forest )
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
Outside site
A number of proposed or ongoing road construction projects pose a threat the the site. There is ongoing construction in the northern area, including a road from Lankagama to Neluwa, despite resistance from local environmental groups (Ranawana, 2020), which may result in fragmentation of forest, and destruction of habitats (Bambaradeniya et al., 2006; Surasinghe, 2007; Gunatilleke, 2011; Chamikara, 2013). A public road in the north-eastern sector of Sinharaja's buffer zone, connecting the village of Illimbekanda with Suriyakanda, was temporarily suspended in 2019 after ministerial intervention due to strong public opposition (IUCN, 2019).
Another already existing access road to Sinharaja from the north-western entrance at Kudawa was being widened and paved with inter-locking cement bricks with funding from the Ecosystem Conservation and Management Project funded by the World Bank (ESCAMP, 2019). This project has been subject to criticisms by environmentalists and local communities, and has been temporarily suspended due to public protests after obtaining several independent reports (Gunatilleke and Dela, 2019; IUCN, 2019; WB Inspection Panel Report, 2020).
Another already existing access road to Sinharaja from the north-western entrance at Kudawa was being widened and paved with inter-locking cement bricks with funding from the Ecosystem Conservation and Management Project funded by the World Bank (ESCAMP, 2019). This project has been subject to criticisms by environmentalists and local communities, and has been temporarily suspended due to public protests after obtaining several independent reports (Gunatilleke and Dela, 2019; IUCN, 2019; WB Inspection Panel Report, 2020).
Erosion and Siltation/ Deposition
(Soil erosion and siltation of rivers/streams evident in areas encroached/illegally cleared )
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Outside site
Illegal road construction activities and clearance of land for tea cultivation has led to soil erosion and siltation of streams in Sinharaja, affecting many rare and endemic species (Bambaradeniya et al., 2006; Rajiv and Vidanapathirana, 2012).
Avalanches/ Landslides
(Landslides due to illegal clearing in hilly areas )
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Outside site
Several landslides have been observed in the Pitadeniya area at the southern border, which has been subject to illegal clearance. Landslides have also been documented at the northern border of Sinharaja (Bambaradeniya et al., 2006; Chamikara, 2013).
Tourism/ visitors/ recreation
(Over-visitation resulting in erosion along certain forest trails )
Inside site
, Localised(<5%)
Outside site
The Mulavella hill trail has been heavily eroded due to over visitation, and similar effects are present along the Sinhagala trail. Some of the hotels and guest houses in and around Sinharaja have also established additional trails without the consent of the Forest Department (Bambaradeniya et al., 2003, 2006; Rajeev and Vidanapathirana, 2012).
Other Activities
(Translocation attempts of the two remaining wild elephants from Sinharaja to another area)
Inside site
, Scattered(5-15%)
Outside site
Only two elephants remain within the site and these are among the last of the wet zone mountain elephants in Sri Lanka. Should these remaining two be translocated due to pressure to abat human wildlife conflict, the last of this particular population would be extirpated (Daily FT, 2018). However, environmental groups have campaigned against the translocation (newsfirst, 2018), which has also been shown to be an ineffective method to reduce conflict. Instead, a new radio tracking system has been developed to establish an early warning system in order to reduce conflict between these elephants and local communities without translocating them from the site (Rodrigo, 2020).
Data to evaluate the impacts of potential threats highlighted, such as climate change, is insufficient. The population expansion in surrounding villages needs to be investigated as a matter of priority.
Habitat Shifting/ Alteration, Droughts, Temperature extremes
(Climate change related issues, including extreme weather events )
Inside site
, Extent of threat not known
The eastern region of Sinharaja is a hotspot for herpetofauna, including representatives of the amphibian genus Pseudophilatus. The entire Sinharaja area, especially the cooler eastern region provides a gradual gradient for animals to disperse, in the wake of climate change (Meegaskumbura et al., 2012). Therefore, future studies should monitor the climate of this region, to gather baseline data.
A study by Mutuwatta and Liyanage (2013) on projected changes in climate boundaries in 2050, has shown that the ever-wet climate in the eastern Sinharaja area is predicted to change to intermediate seasonally dry climate by 2050, leading to habitat shifting and possible extinctions of endangered species. However, future studies are needed to monitor the climate of this region, and to gather baseline data.
A study by Mutuwatta and Liyanage (2013) on projected changes in climate boundaries in 2050, has shown that the ever-wet climate in the eastern Sinharaja area is predicted to change to intermediate seasonally dry climate by 2050, leading to habitat shifting and possible extinctions of endangered species. However, future studies are needed to monitor the climate of this region, and to gather baseline data.
Other Activities
(Population increase in surrounding villages )
Outside site
Expansion of village populations is evident mainly at the northern border of Sinharaja, leading to an increased pressure on land resources (Chamikara, 2013; Rajeev and Vidanapathirana, 2012).
Utility / Service Lines
(Construction of communication towers )
Outside site
Several communication towers have already been established on hilltops bordering Sinharaja, resulting in adverse impacts on natural habitats due to construction of access roads, as well as loss of aesthetic value (Rajeev and Vidanapathirana, 2012).
Illegal encroachment has led to the loss and reduction of forest cover. Other activities such as illegal gem mining, deliberate fires, hydropower development and road construction have resulted in habitat degradation. Illegal hunting and logging have also been reported and documented by conservation groups. Increased visitation and development of tourism infrastructure are impacting negatively on forest and freshwater ecosystems. Overuse of agrochemicals in tea plantations bordering the forest can lead to the pollution of streams and rivers and associated aquatic biodiversity. Exotic plants introduced for forest restoration purposes, e.g. mahogany (Sweitenia macrophylla) and spread of invasive alien plants such as Alstonia macrophylla, Clidemia hirta and Wedelia trilobata can cause adverse impacts on the native flora and ecology of Sinharaja.
Management system
The management of the Sinharaja forest is vested with the Forest Department, which operates two main offices in the northern and southern areas. However, gaps in the management system are evident when considering the current threats in Sinharaja (Gunatillake, 2011; Chamikara, 2013; Rajeev and Vidanapathirana, 2012; Bambaradeniya et al., 2006).
Effectiveness of management system
At present, overall management of Sinharaja is unsatisfactory. It is important that management plans for Sinharaja are updated on a regular basis, in order to implement actions to address new conservation issues (Gunatillake, 2011; Chamikara, 2013; Rajeev and Vidanapathirana, 2012; Bambaradeniya et al., 2006). Management plans for Sinharaja World Heritage site were updated and included in the National REDD+ Investment Framework and Action Plan (NRIFAP) and also in the World Bank funded Ecosystem Conservation and Management Plan (ESCAMP), which were implemented starting in 2017/18 for five years with funding pledged (ESCAMP, 2016; NRIFAP, 2017).
In December 2019, a Ministerial level committee with five sub-committees was appointed to address all issues pertaining to the efficient management of World Heritage sites in Sri Lanka.
In December 2019, a Ministerial level committee with five sub-committees was appointed to address all issues pertaining to the efficient management of World Heritage sites in Sri Lanka.
Boundaries
Discrepancies related to boundary demarcation has led to illegal encroachments around Sinharaja (Gunatillake, 2011; Chamikara, 2013; Rajeev and Vidanapathirana, 2012). Progress has already been made to survey the boundaries and maps have been prepared based on topographical coordinates recorded using GPS technology covering the entire Sinharaja ecosystem across the Rathnapura, Matara, Galle as well as Kalutara districts. Acquisition of forested lands belonging to the private sector and Land Reforming Commission within the boundary of Sinharaja Ecosystem has also commenced (Sri Lanka Forest Department, 2018; IUCN Consultation, 2020).
Boundary demarcations have been completed for most parts and all forest reserves have been gazetted together with the Sinharaja World Heritage site as 'Sinharaja Rainforest Complex' (the Gazette signed by the Minister of Environment is now with the Legal Draftsman for final editing) (Rodrigo, 2019b; Cooray, 2019).
Boundary demarcations have been completed for most parts and all forest reserves have been gazetted together with the Sinharaja World Heritage site as 'Sinharaja Rainforest Complex' (the Gazette signed by the Minister of Environment is now with the Legal Draftsman for final editing) (Rodrigo, 2019b; Cooray, 2019).
Integration into regional and national planning systems
Concerted efforts and actions to protect Sinharaja should be well integrated into local development plans to avoid adverse impacts related to development (Gunatillake, 2011; Chamikara, 2013; Rajeev and Vidanapathirana, 2012), although this is not always the case (Daily Mirror, 2016). However, with the co-operation of the private sector tea plantations, two important biological corridors are being established connecting Sinharaja forest with Walankanda and Delwala forest reserves (Finlays and Dilmah Conservation Projects) (Finlays 2019; Dilmah Conservation, 2019).
Relationships with local people
The Forest Department has maintained good relationships with local people through the implementation of collaborative programmes with “Sinharaja Sumithuro” - a local community-based organization. There is a great public respect and awareness of the values of the rainforest, especially among local people (IUCN Consultation, 2020).
Legal framework
Implementation of the existing legal framework to address serious conservation issues at Sinharaja is poor (Chamikara, 2013; Rajeev and Vidanapathirana, 2012).
In order to reduce further fragmentation and land use change, the Forest Department has gazetted several forests along with Sinharaja World Heritage site, as 'Sinharaja Rain Forest Complex', thus almost quadrupling its original size (Rodrigo, 2019b).
In order to reduce further fragmentation and land use change, the Forest Department has gazetted several forests along with Sinharaja World Heritage site, as 'Sinharaja Rain Forest Complex', thus almost quadrupling its original size (Rodrigo, 2019b).
Law enforcement
The buffer zone and adjoining forests in Sinharaja are currently facing major issues related to illegal encroachment and vegetation clearance due to poor protection/ poor enforcement of law and management (Chamikara, 2013; Rajeev and Vidanapathirana, 2012).
Implementation of Committee decisions and recommendations
The Committee decision 17COMX recognized the fact that there are many incremental threats to the site, but the Committee noted that a Management Plan to address these had been completed. It was further noted that continued monitoring of the site should be implemented as a priority activity of the Plan. The committee decision specifically mentioned the need to monitor forest encroachment, but the management authority has not been able to address the issue of illegal encroachments in a satisfactory manner.
Sustainable use
Previously, there has been inadequate data to verify aspects related to sustainable use. However, a new publication evaluating the present status of Sinharaja World Heritage site, through an assessment of the discrepancy between conservation laws and their implementation through management plans, is proposing recommendations for sustainable management of the buffer zone that would balance contemporary development threats while defending the conservation status granted by UNESCO via natural World Heritage sites and Biosphere Reserves (EFL, 2018).
Sustainable finance
Financing conservation of Sinharaja has been improved recently through ESCAMP and NRIFAP projects (ESCAMP, 2016; NRIFAP, 2017).
Staff capacity, training, and development
The Forest Department staff stationed in Sinharaja, and members of the ‘Sinharaja Sumithrayo’, regularly participate in various training programmes from the universities, research institutions, the IUCN Country office and NGOs in Sri Lanka.
A training program on forest landscape restoration was conducted for all field level forest officers of the Forest Department in February 2016 in collaboration with the University of Peradeniya and the Sri Lanka Forestry Institute.
A training program on forest landscape restoration was conducted for all field level forest officers of the Forest Department in February 2016 in collaboration with the University of Peradeniya and the Sri Lanka Forestry Institute.
Education and interpretation programs
Sinharaja has been well integrated into the school curriculum and university degree programmes. The management authority as well as several NGOs conduct education and awareness programmes on Sinharaja (Bambaradeniya et al., 2006). Several national and international training programmes are being conducted in and around Sinharaja. A 3-day field training programme for junior field officers of the Forest Department was conducted on forest landscape restoration at Sinharaja in 2016.
The Overseas School of Colombo regularly takes students to Sinharaja on field courses (Lockwood, 2019). The Sri Lanka Program for Forest Conservation (SLPFC), a Yale-based project, launched a postgraduate fellowship program in 2017 that provides practical and professional development experience in tropical forest conservation based in Sinharaja, mostly on village-forest interactions and their sustainability values (SLPFC, 2016).
The Overseas School of Colombo regularly takes students to Sinharaja on field courses (Lockwood, 2019). The Sri Lanka Program for Forest Conservation (SLPFC), a Yale-based project, launched a postgraduate fellowship program in 2017 that provides practical and professional development experience in tropical forest conservation based in Sinharaja, mostly on village-forest interactions and their sustainability values (SLPFC, 2016).
Tourism and visitation management
There is a visitor center at the Kudawa entrance in the north. The IUCN Sri Lanka office has produced a general guide to the biodiversity of Sinharaja, including trail guides (Bambaradeniya et al., 2006). Several other NGOs/individuals have published guides on Sinharaja. Both positive and negative impacts of tourism in Sinharaja have been examined, in particular in estimating visitor pressure during peak visitation periods and recommendations have been made to alleviate the visitor pressure in order to not move beyond carrying capacity at peak times (Liyanage et al., 2018). A nature based tourism plan for the Sinharaja Forest Complex has also been prepared under the ESCAMP Project. This plan provides a comprehensive set of strategic objectives and subsequent actions for developing tourism (ESCAMP, 2018).
Monitoring
Monitoring of conservation issues in Sinharaja is inadequate (Gunatillake, 2011; Chamikara, 2013).
Research
The Center for Tropical Forest Science - Forest Global Earth Observatory (CTFS-ForestGEO) is a global network of forest research plots and scientists dedicated to the study of tropical and temperate forest function and diversity. A 25 ha Forest Dynamics Plot is part of the CTFS-ForestGEO network and a restoration ecology programme (Ashton et al., 2014a, b; CTFS-ForestGEO). This plot was surveyed for the fifth time during 2018 and 2019 and has been featuring in a number of international publications on inter-site comparisons and trend analyses (CTFS-ForestGEO).
Sinharaja is a crucial global centre for forest ecological and biogeographical research, owing to the fact that it contains the best remaining example of the lowland forest that evolved on the Indian island in the late Cretaceous era, as it separated from Madagascar and moved north-east along the East-African cost (IUCN Consultation, 2020).
Sinharaja is a crucial global centre for forest ecological and biogeographical research, owing to the fact that it contains the best remaining example of the lowland forest that evolved on the Indian island in the late Cretaceous era, as it separated from Madagascar and moved north-east along the East-African cost (IUCN Consultation, 2020).
Enforcement of legislation to conserve Sinharaja needs significant improvement to address serious conservation issues, halt further fragmentation and avoid adverse impacts from infrastructure and hydropower development. The boundary of the existing World Heritage site needs to be clearly defined, and options to expand the extent of the site to conserve remaining primary rainforest patches in the adjoining areas need to be considered. It is expected that some of these concerns can be addressed through two recently initiated projects - National REDD+ Investment Framework and Action Plan (NRIFAP, 2017) and the World Bank funded Ecosystem Conservation and Management Plan (ESCAMP, 2017a, 2017b). A long-term research plot has been successfully established to document the temporal and spatial dynamics of the ecology of Sinharaja, including its fauna and flora. Several national and local NGOs have carried out successful education and interpretation programs within Sinharaja World Heritage site, leading to raising general awareness about Sinharaja at the national level.
Assessment of the effectiveness of protection and management in addressing threats outside the site
Some Concern
The buffer zone and adjoining forests in Sinharaja are currently facing major issues related to illegal encroachment and vegetation clearance due to poor protection/ poor enforcement of law and management (Chamikara, 2013; Rajeev and Vidanapathirana, 2012).
Although some measures are taken, such as the development of i) the 'Sinharaja Rain Forest Complex', ii) a ministerial committee to address the issues of natural World Heritage sites including Sinharaja, and iii) a project proposal for management of Sinharaja (ESCAMP, 2018), some concerns still remain.
Although some measures are taken, such as the development of i) the 'Sinharaja Rain Forest Complex', ii) a ministerial committee to address the issues of natural World Heritage sites including Sinharaja, and iii) a project proposal for management of Sinharaja (ESCAMP, 2018), some concerns still remain.
Best practice examples
• A Forest Dynamics Plot (500m x 500m) established in 1993 to study the temporal and spatial dynamics in a tropical rainforest, and species richness and diversity of fauna and flora; • Restoration of tropical rainforest using Pinus as a nurse crop. • Empowerment of local community based organizations (the network of ‘Sinharaja Sumithrayo’) in Sinharaja.
A model ecotourism resort - 'The Rainforest Ecolodge' established in the SE perimeter of Sinharaja WHS in Enselwatta Estate in Deniyaya has been awarded several international green awards for ecotourism hotels (Abstract presented at ATBC -AP 2019 by Rainforest Ecolodge (Pvt.) Ltd.).
A model ecotourism resort - 'The Rainforest Ecolodge' established in the SE perimeter of Sinharaja WHS in Enselwatta Estate in Deniyaya has been awarded several international green awards for ecotourism hotels (Abstract presented at ATBC -AP 2019 by Rainforest Ecolodge (Pvt.) Ltd.).
Assessment of the current state and trend of World Heritage values
Low Concern
Trend
Data Deficient
Since the inscription of Sinharaja on the World Heritage list in 1988, many species of plants and animals new to science have been discovered in this site, as a result of a significant increase in research work over the past three decades. However, resent assessments and publications have also highlighted particular concern regarding threats to amphibians (Rodrigo, 2020b) and reptiles (Samarawickrama et al., 2019) within the site. All the same, current data is insufficient to assess trends related to the ecology of many species of flora and fauna in Sinharaja.
Forest research indicates a gradual regeneration in areas subjected to logging in the 1970s, with an increase in primary forest vegetation. Although it is difficult to predict trends for most taxonomical groups due to inadequate baseline data and monitoring, some concerns remain regarding the impacts of development, encroachment, forest fires, vegetation clearance and illegal trade on the Sinharaja ecosystem and its species (Bambaradeniya et al., 2006; Surasinghe, 2007; Gunatilleke, 2011; Chamikara, 2013; Kumara, 2016; Samarawickrama et al. 2019; Masakorala, 2020).
Forest research indicates a gradual regeneration in areas subjected to logging in the 1970s, with an increase in primary forest vegetation. Although it is difficult to predict trends for most taxonomical groups due to inadequate baseline data and monitoring, some concerns remain regarding the impacts of development, encroachment, forest fires, vegetation clearance and illegal trade on the Sinharaja ecosystem and its species (Bambaradeniya et al., 2006; Surasinghe, 2007; Gunatilleke, 2011; Chamikara, 2013; Kumara, 2016; Samarawickrama et al. 2019; Masakorala, 2020).
Additional information
Access to drinking water
Non commercial: All villages around the Sinharaja forest are dependent on the streams, rivers and groundwater resources sustained by the forest for drinking water and water for their day-to-day uses.
Commercial wells
Commercial: Several mini-hydropower plants located around Sinharaja are sustained from streams and rivers originating from this forest.
When part of a stream is diverted for power generation, the habitat downstream over a certain distance changes and fish will be affected even though a percentage of water might be allowed to flow freely. With flow changes, the sediment transport, erosion rate and the pH value of water could also change and very sensitive species could become affected. Some fish migrate upstream to breed and when the stream is blocked this movement is disrupted. During the dry season, little or no water is released as environmental flow in to the stream, causing deaths of aquatic biota.
When part of a stream is diverted for power generation, the habitat downstream over a certain distance changes and fish will be affected even though a percentage of water might be allowed to flow freely. With flow changes, the sediment transport, erosion rate and the pH value of water could also change and very sensitive species could become affected. Some fish migrate upstream to breed and when the stream is blocked this movement is disrupted. During the dry season, little or no water is released as environmental flow in to the stream, causing deaths of aquatic biota.
Collection of medicinal resources for local use
Medicinal plants are extracted by local communities from buffer zone areas.
Outdoor recreation and tourism
Sinharaja is a popular ecotourism destination among local and foreign tourists.
Unplanned and unauthorized building of tourist lodges near waterways along the perimeter of the forest is affecting negatively on the forest by enhanced pollution of waterways and by some form of cultural pollution, as well.
Increased visitation during peak seasons is driving this fragile ecosystem beyond its carrying capacity especially on the two most popular routes through Kudawa and Pitadeniya entry points.
Unplanned and unauthorized building of tourist lodges near waterways along the perimeter of the forest is affecting negatively on the forest by enhanced pollution of waterways and by some form of cultural pollution, as well.
Increased visitation during peak seasons is driving this fragile ecosystem beyond its carrying capacity especially on the two most popular routes through Kudawa and Pitadeniya entry points.
1. https://www.escamp.lk/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/ESCAMP-RATHNAPURA-SINHARAJA-3b-01_Proposal-2.pdf
2. http://www.escamp.lk/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/3a-Matara-Sinharaja-1.pdf
2. http://www.escamp.lk/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/3a-Matara-Sinharaja-1.pdf
Importance for research,
Contribution to education
Resource for building knowledge and education: Taxonomic, biogeographical and exploratory research in Sinharaja over the past three decades has contributed to the discovery of many plants and animals that are new to science and also how this diversity is maintained (LaManna, 2017; Bandara et al., 2020). Research on forest restoration has generated a wealth of knowledge on regeneration of tropical rainforests (Ediriweera et al., 2020).
Environmental services,
Soil stabilisation
Sinharaja contributes to sustain an array of environmental services, including the regulation of local climate, soil conservation, generate and sustain quality freshwater, and sustain natural pollinators.
Collection of timber, e.g. fuelwood
Rattan is extracted from the buffer zone areas for local livelihoods. Collection of medicinal plants as well as those yielding fragrant resins of high value (Gyrinops sp.) is on the increase thus decimating the natural populations in and around Sinharaja World Heritage site.
1. https://www.sjp.ac.lk/research/walla-patta-gyrinops-walla-for-agarwood-production/
2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2015.01.060
3. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-10-0833-7_6
2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2015.01.060
3. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-10-0833-7_6
Sinharaja has immense global value in relation to biodiversity conservation, as it harbors many species of animals and plants that are restricted (point endemics) to this forest. The villages surrounding Sinharaja (22 in total) benefit from an array of environmental services from Sinharaja.
Over 10 members of the local village youth (male and female) who had been assisting the researchers in their field studies in Sinharaja over the years have been absorbed by the Forest Department as visitor-guides and this has been a very successful project both for the visitors and the guides. Booster programs to increase the guides' knowledge on Sinharaja and its biota have been conducted by the Forest Department with assistance from researchers.
Over 10 members of the local village youth (male and female) who had been assisting the researchers in their field studies in Sinharaja over the years have been absorbed by the Forest Department as visitor-guides and this has been a very successful project both for the visitors and the guides. Booster programs to increase the guides' knowledge on Sinharaja and its biota have been conducted by the Forest Department with assistance from researchers.
| № | Organization | Brief description of Active Projects | Website |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Herpetological Foundation of Sri Lanka (HFS) | Research on new species of amphibians and reptiles in Sinharaja World Heritage site | |
| 2 | Center for Applied Biodiversity Research and Education (CABRE) | Research on orchids in Sinharaja | |
| 3 | Ceylon Bird Club (CBC) | Annual monitoring of avifauna in Sinharaja, including | |
| 4 | Field Ornithology Group (FOG) | Mixed-species foraging bird flocks in Sinharaja |
University of Colombo
|
| 5 | Madhava Meegaskumbura | Monitoring of amphibians in eastern Sinharaja, Morningside (long-term study) |
Department of Zoology, University of Peradeniya Web: http://web.mac.com/madhavameegaskumbura
|
| 6 | University of Uva Wellassa, Badulla, Sri Lanka | Restoration of forest in buffer zones (long-term study initiated in 1990) and Sinharaja Forest Dynamics Plot for monitoring changes in plant diversity over time. |
https://forestgeo.si.edu/ediriweera
|
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