Mount Athos

Since flat areas are very scarce in the Mount Athos peninsula, most croplands have been historically established in terraces. The mosaic of croplands is found in small patches between the coast line and 700 m of altitude, covering less than 10% of the peninsula (Philippou & Kontos, 2010). Crops include diverse vegetable gardens, fruit tree groves, vineyards, olive groves, and medicinal plants gardens. Most crop products are consumed by the monastic population and pilgrims. Agricultural practices are diverse, and organic farming is spreading again, after a period when pesticides and agrochemicals had been used in several monasteries.

Low quantities of liquid waste produced, in relation to the large size of the receiving surface, permits natural self-regulation of the local ecosystems. Nevertheless, saturation of the capacity for self-cleaning is possible in some cases, like major celebrations in large monasteries, when several hundred pilgrims may gather, necessitating the need to develop more efficient systems (HC, 2012). This threat cannot be considered as very significant overall; however there is insufficient data on current needs, and challenges lie ahead at the technical (see the technology and functional design of the system) and financial (see funding) level.

Although special regulations in place restrict the maximum number of visitors at 120 people per day, the actual number significantly increases by collaborators of the Monasteries and by pilgrims during periods of holidays to several hundreds per day (HC, 2012), amounting to around 100,000 pilgrims per year. This threat mostly affects the spirituality of Athonite daily life, rather than the natural environment of the Mount; thus, it is considered as very low from the point of view of the present assessment, whereas it is generally estimated to be manageable through appropriate measures. There is a need for restoration and recovery of a the main network of historic trails and footpaths, usually stone-paved (kaldirimi), among the main monasteries and sketes. This would make easier for pilgrims to walk on them, reducing or avoiding the use of cars, which should be highly encouraged both for environmental, health and spiritual reasons. In particular, the efforts developed by Friends of Mount Athos to clearing, restoring and maintaining the old Athonite footpaths during the last years should be encouraged, supported and complemented. Moreover, many kilometres of old paths are still bordered by old broad-leave trees, which protect de stability of the path, limits soil erosion, provides shade in summer, increases beauty and biodiversity, etc. thus deserving strict preservation (Mallarach, 2013).

Significant steps have been taken in the past years to address the threat posed by uncontrolled waste management. Since 2016, the landfill site of Karyes has been restored; solid waste is being transferred outside Athos, processed in the waste disposal site of Mavrorachi. Similarly, recyclables are also being collected and transferred outside Athos. Further actions need to be taken regarding management of organic and non-recyclable waste (IUCN Consultation, 2020).

A substantial part of the coppice forests of Mt Athos are logged for fuel wood resulting in various levels of forest degradation around most large monastic settlements (Kakouros, 2010). Furthermore, as identified by previous reports (see especially UNESCO/ICOMOS/IUCN, 2006), pressures for timber extraction have resulted in unsustainable practices and overexploitation in certain areas, through the monoculture of chestnut trees that subsequently increased vulnerability to attacks by parasites. Concerning the latter, parasite infection has already been treated successfully through systematic vaccination (SES, 2006). Best practices for chestnut forest management have been adopted by most monasteries, following the example that Simonopetra defined and implemented since 1993 (Kakouros, 2010). It is estimated that this threat can be successfully dealt with through appropriate measures and systematic monitoring, in the framework of an integrated forest management plan, as mentioned above. In any case, forest logging for fuel wood remains a secondary activity to timber extraction in Mt Athos. Traditional forest management methods in Mt Athos have focused on coppiced exploitation of perennial and deciduous broad-leaved forests. Environmental, landscape and productive reasons indicate the need for gradual restoration of coppiced oak forests to seedling and for increasing the cycle length of chestnut trees. Such actions have already been undertaken by several Monasteries, but they need to be systematically planned and carried out (SES, 2006; HC, 2012) based on the practices developed by certain monasteries (Philipou & Kontos, 2010).

The wildfire that consumed 2,200 ha of forest vegetation and threatened several Monasteries and sketes with total destruction in 1990, raised considerable concern to the need for fire protection of the Holy Mount territory (SES, 2006). The need to initiate an integrated fire protection plan, emphasising on coordination between the Fire Brigade and the Monasteries, and the potential responsibilities that could be assumed by monks (e.g. in the six watching towers), is an absolute priority, emphatically confirmed by the last great wildfire, in August 2012, that swept over a large proportion of the pine forests in the western part of the peninsula (HC, 2012). It is no wonder that the risk of wildfires is considered as the most significant threat facing Mount Athos today, as indicated by all relevant documentation (UNESCO, 2012; World Heritage Committee, 2012; HC, 2012; SES, 2006, Philipou & Kontos, 2010). Severity of this threat stems both from its likelihood, which is particularly accentuated by climate change, and from its consequences, which could be devastating for both the natural and man-made environment of the property. Current management capacity is good in terms of manpower, experience and commitment; however it suffers from the lack of an overall plan (risk preparedness study) adequate training, and advanced. Recent research coupled with future regional climate models, can be used to address potential future changes of fire regimes, including increasing wildfire severity, shifts in fire risk distributions and, ultimately, implementing adaptive forest and fuel management options, e.g. modifications of forest structures for reducing fire risk potential, by thinning, pruning, understory biomass removal or prescribed burning (Mallini et al, 2016). Additionally, the recovery of selected agricultural areas strategically located around monastic settlements would reduce wild fire risks, while increasing the beauty and the balance of the mosaic distribution of crop lands and forestlands, e.g. around Karyes. Several actions have taken place in the past years to address this significant threat (opening fire control zones, clearing of old paths, installation of water reservoirs in accessible parts of the forest, installation of fire detection systems and/or purchase of fire trucks in some monasteries, etc.). In addition, the Fire Service of Mt Athos has been enhanced in organizational terms and collaboration with the Forest Ephorate has also improved. Further coordinated actions to address this important threat (including preparation of a forest protection plan and training of monks) are foreseen in the, recently approved, LIFE-Stemma proposal (IUCN Consultation, 2020).

An excessive number of forest roads have been opened after 1980, for fire protection and transportation of goods and building materials, including timber, some of which are also used for pilgrims' transportation. Road construction has, in most cases, failed to meet appropriate design principles, and has not been integrated to a functional general plan and the main landscape features, causing significant degradation to the natural environment and the landscape (UNESCO, 2012; HC, 2012). In the territories of 11 monasteries, road density is higher than the 15 m/ha limit considered appropriate (Kakouros, 2010). In addition, insensitive road construction has frequently impacted the extensive network of historic trails and footpaths, many of which are stone paved since late Byzantium times, leading to its abandonment and degradation. The need to mitigate adverse effects of previous inadequate practices, restore useless roads, and reduce the volume of new constructions to the absolute minimum (in accordance with fire fighting and operational needs) has been widely agreed upon (HC, 2012; SES, 2006). Furthermore, the prospect for overall re-examination of the network and implementation of rehabilitation measures in the framework of an integrated management plan creates positive expectations for the future.