Sagarmatha National Park

The operation of two commercial lodges/resorts (the Kongde Hotels), which were believed to be within the property, and the protracted legal process concerning their future has been a concern since their construction in 2005. The legal proceedings within the Supreme Court of Nepal were finalized in 2019 with the court finding in favour of the resort owners (State Party of Nepal, 2019; Sapkota, 2019). The 2016 IUCN Advisory Mission noted that some stakeholders believed that documentation used to prove ownership of the area had been obtained illegally, while another report published online present the view that while such documentation may be legal they were the result of a corrupt process (IUCN, 2016; UNESCO, 2018; Sapkota, 2019). The operation of this facility at 4,200 m above sea level within the property is inappropriate and creates an unfortunate precedent for other tourism operators (UNESCO, 2014). Further inappropriateness is evidenced by the observation by the 2016 mission that the trail to access and service the hotels bisects an extremely sensitive and ecologically intact biodiversity rich part of the property. The mission report concludes that the trail has more impact on the property’s Outstanding Universal Value (OUV) than the two hotels (IUCN, 2016; UNESCO, 2018), and operation of the hotels seems to be a significant element if there is increased helicopter operations affecting the aesthetic amenity of the property.

Whilst the original park management plan advocated as a condition of rock extraction that rehabilitation and restoration planting be part of the approval process, it appears that this has largely not been undertaken (IUCN Consultation, 2014) and the 2016 IUCN Advisory Mission notes significant impacts from quarrying activities within the property (IUCN, 2016). The mission accepted that the utilisation of local rock for construction purposes is unavoidable and justifiable, but took the position that rock should be sourced from outside the property where feasible, and that no rock extraction for commercial or industrial purposes should take place within the property. It further notes that there are significant areas of disturbance, which should be subject to site restoration and rehabilitation measures. Site restoration would be a reasonable condition when approval for rock extraction is given, and this should be supported by some form of financial bond to ensure that all of the conditions of permits are observed. The mission recommended that the State Party include in the 2016-2020 Management Plan a specific section on quarrying, which details the conditions for quarrying both within (where unavoidable) and outside the property and specifies a restoration and site rehabilitation standard (IUCN, 2016). However, neither the Management Plan nor the two subsequent State Party's State of Conservation reports have addressed the issue of quarrying or the recommendations of the 2016 IUCN Advisory Mission (State Party of Nepal, 2017; 2019).

Whilst it has been reported that there has been some decline in firewood collection, some of the highest forests closest to Mount Sagarmatha (Mt Everest) are reported to still be under severe threat from tourism development and village firewood use. The forests on the left bank of the Imja Khola (river) supply the major village of Pangboche and all of the alpine hotels en route to Everest Base Camp (IUCN Consultation, 2014). The State Party reports that the growing number of tourists puts pressure on the need for fuel wood for both cooking and heating and this may have a direct impact on existing forests (State Party of Nepal, 2014). Consequently in 2016, the World Heritage Committee expressed concern that firewood collection is not comprehensively addressed in the draft Management Plan other than promoting alternative energy and an Advisory Mission was tasked with investigating the issue. The 2016 IUCN mission noted that the availability of reticulated power within the property and buffer zone had significantly reduced the use of firewood and the 2018 State of Conservation report notes that the Buffer Zone Management Committee has totally banned firewood collection in the Namche area and that enforcement patrols had not detected any illegal activity (State Party of Nepal, 2017).

There has been an increase in the use of aircrafts, in particular helicopters, due to an increase in the numbers of tourist who require access to the site (IUCN Consultation, 2014). Increased use of aircrafts impact the visitor amenity of the site. The 2016 IUCN Advisory Mission observed that helicopter flights to various locations within the property commenced as early as 6 am and continued almost unabated for more than ten hours on some days. Between four and seven helicopters operating is the norm. The report further notes marketing and promotion for a wide range of helicopter-supported activities within the property include skydiving, rescue operations, medical evacuations, sightseeing, general cargo activities and a “taxi service” between a variety of locations within the property (IUCN, 2016). Considering that the property was inscribed on the World Heritage list under criterion (vii) to contain superlative natural phenomena or areas of exceptional natural beauty and aesthetic importance, the mission considered that the “aesthetic importance” component of the property’s OUV is compromised by the unrelenting noise and visual impacts directly caused by uncontrolled and unregulated helicopter use (IUCN, 2016). While some helicopter use is justified, particularly in relation to emergency situations, it is conservatively estimated that as much as 70% of the helicopter traffic within the property (as opposed to the buffer zone) is for sightseeing, shifting freight and tourism-related commercial use. Weary trekkers with the right type of insurance also use helicopters to get back to the airport. There are even reports of climbing expeditions at the Everest Base Camp dispatching helicopters to fetch ice-cream from Kathmandu. While this may be just an 'urban myth' there is clearly a perception among stakeholders that there is improper use of helicopters within the property. A search of the internet reveals several tour operators promoting helicopter tours varying from one to four hour sight-seeing tours through to multi-day trek-in/fly out options. Despite these reports and observations, the State Party reported in 2017 and reiterates in 2019 that: “Helicopters are used for rescue and relief works. There are random checks of rescue operations [...] to validate that the helicopter flights are a real rescue flight. DNPWC and SNP Authority conducted the meeting regularly for regulating the helicopter flights”. While the property’s management authority appears to be reluctant to address the problem there is clearly a significant issue with the impact of helicopters on aesthetic values, but there has been no consideration of the potential impact on significant wildlife, particularly on snow leopards.

The State Party reports that climate change has resulted in an increase in the number of days without precipitation and coincides with an increase in forest fires particularly in the pine forests (State Party of Nepal, 2014). The property’s mid and lower altitudes are comprised of several fire-dependent ecosystems, which are beginning to be better understood, yet it is considered that changes in the natural fire regime within the property could have a significant impact on most of conservation values. The 2016 IUCN Advisory Mission considered that the use of helicopters and associated fire-fighting equipment is required to address threats to the property from increased fire frequency or intensity. The mission therefore made recommendations to the State Party to investigate the possibility of using helicopters for fire-fighting purposes and to ensure that the new Management Plan takes account of the contemporary fire ecology principles and management and capacity building for both helicopter pilots and on the ground staff (IUCN, 2016). While the Management Plan does not specifically include the use of helicopters in the suppression of forest-fires, it does provide appropriate strategies for the prevention and suppression of forest-fires.

The large increase in trekkers and mountaineers has created a need for more efficient means of human waste disposal, however, there is a lack of funding to meet this increasing need. The local NGO, Sagarmatha Pollution Control Committee (SPCC) is the body responsible for monitoring waste management by mountaineering expeditions and supporting base camp clean-up campaigns. It also has responsibility for waste management programs and environmental education programs for the local villages (IUCN Consultation, 2014; UNESCO, 2014). The 2016 IUCN Advisory Mission concluded that, apart from the management of human waste, the efforts being made by the SPCC are adequate, although it did not address the issue of funding for this important management issue. The mission recommended that the State Party support, in both policy and financial terms, SPCC’s efforts to develop sustainable waste management strategies and facilities (IUCN, 2016). The State Party has noted that SPCC constructed solid waste containers along trekking routes and that 10,000 kg of garbage were collected from the Everest region in 2018 for further disposal. The State Party further notes that it has been providing technical, financial and legal assistance to SPCC as required to effectively implement waste management in the property and its buffer zone (State Party of Nepal, 2019). Third party sources indicate that the 10,000 kg reported above was in fact the result of one specific rubbish removal expedition in 2018 to remove historical rubbish and that a further 35,000 kg still on the mountain is targeted for removal in 2020. The State Party is proposing, in the face of strong opposition from the Sherpa population, to use the Army for the task. The Sherpas believe that the army does not have the skills to tackle the problem (Radio New Zealand, 2020). It is critical to note here that the 2016 IUCN Advisory Mission assessment was based on the SPCC dealing with an average annual visitation level of 30,000 (2014-2016), whereas the average visitation for the years 2018 and 2019 was 57,000; an increase of almost 100% in just three years. This level of visitation increase exerts enormous strains on every aspect of visitor management, particularly waste management in remote areas. Of notable importance is the notation that the State Party is reportedly asking for a US$400 deposit, which is returned if climbers bring their waste back with them (Radio New Zealand, 2020). Whilt the creation of a network of litter collection bins along the Everst Base Camp trail is positive, the major problem is open pits or landfills that are often hidden from the visitors, but everything dumped there are burned without separating recyclable and materials containing toxic chemicals. Positive changes have however also been made such as removal of open defecation areas, bottles are banned, and most importantly, trails are in much better condition than before. This shows that the local communities are doing the best they can, but removing these recyclable and hazardous materials from the SNP is also a costly job. Optimism is also high because the newly empowered Khumbu Pasang Lhamu Rural Municipality has much needed resources as well as clear mandate to address solid waste, along with the basic services such as education, health, tourism, agriculture, and public safety at the level proportionate to the SNP. 

With a dramatic increase in tourism has come a change in the demographic profile of the traditional Sherpa residents of the Park, with many people relocating to Kathmandu as they have become wealthier from servicing tourism. This appears to have resulted in the remaining Sherpa population tending to be made up of older and younger people with fewer in the middle-aged bracket (IUCN Consultation, 2014). The 2016 IUCN Advisory Mission noted a transition from families offering basic food/lodging to trekkers to the present day lodges with deluxe to super deluxe suites. Basic facilities and services have been replaced by Wi-Fi internet, room service, laundering, hot shower, restaurant, bar services and bakeries (IUCN, 2016; Mu et al., 2018). During the peak seasons (Oct/Nov and Mar/Apr) the demand for accommodation exceed the supply. The mission further noted that there were some 600 lodges within the property and lodge owners compete for business by offering accommodation at little or no cost on the condition that guests purchase their meals at the place where they are staying. This unsustainable business practice contributes to environmental degradation because lodge operators then have to cut corners in terms of solid waste disposal, garbage, etc. Another concern is the increase in owners of land within the buffer zone who build lodges and then lease them to “non-residents”. These arrangements are generally made with people who have come from outside the area with little sensitivity to cultural or environmental values, and need to generate significant revenue to pay the owner, purchase fuel and food, and pay service staff. The mission recommended that the State Party provide information on the number and capacity of lodges located within the property and its buffer zone, and note whether they are operated by the owners or are leased (IUCN, 2016). The State Party has not responded in either the 2017 or 2019 State of Conservation reports.

The management of human waste was a concern raised in the 2016 IUCN Advisory Mission, i.e. sealed containers of human waste are transported to Lobuche (about one days walk from the base camp) and disposed of in an open pit. The potential for the pit to leech contaminants and untreated waste into adjacent watercourses is very real (Nicholson et al., 2018). The mission recommended that the State Party instigate a feasibility assessment on options for dealing with the treatment and disposal of human waste in the upper part of the property (IUCN, 2016). The Management Plan notes that the pollution problem is now no longer confined to solid waste. The water sources along the major trails are being contaminated from improper effluent discharge, human waste, and garbage dumping (Nicholson et al., 2018). Sewerage and toilet waste can be found piped into the nearby streams and rivers. It provides for the Park authority to actively participate in controlling various forms of pollution, and will attempt to make the control system more sustainable by involving the local people with support from the other stakeholders. Similarly, it will focus on reducing waste generation and proper disposal systems. Noting that these comments and strategies to address the problem was based on a visitation of 30,000 per year (the Management Plan provides no projection of increased visitor numbers for planning period), the dramatic increase in visitation from 2016 to 2019 is a very serious concern for human waste management. While it is noted by the 2016 IUCN Advisory Mission that human waste in the villages and lodges is treated in septic tanks, the extreme variance in the pressure on these systems (70% in just 16 to 20 weeks of the year during peak-season) combined with a 100% increase in visitation in just three years, indicates an urgent need to assess the capacity of the existing septic tanks to effectively treat the load being imposed on them.

From around 2011, donkeys have been increasingly used to transport freight (building materials and tourism supplies) into the property, causing damage to local trails and creating intensive grazing pressure on native flora in some areas. Photographs on the internet show donkeys as far up as the Everest Base Camp. The 2016 IUCN Advisory Mission notes that there were about 500 registered donkeys, plus as many as 500 unregistered donkeys, operating within the property and its buffer zone. Groups of up to 60 donkeys are commonly encountered along trails in the property resulting in delays of up to one hour for visitors to traverse narrow sections of the trail. The mission report further notes that as well as causing congestion for visitor movement the donkeys excrete a significant amount of dung, which attracts flies and emits an unpleasant odour (IUCN, 2016). The mission recommends that the State Party collaborate with the Buffer Zone User Committees to formulate and implement measures to better manage the use of donkeys. The State Party’s subsequent reports are silent in regard to the Advisory Mission concerns about impact by donkeys.

Visitation has grown from around 4,000 in the 1970’s to an estimated 35,000 visitors in 2014/15 (IUCN, 2016). Following the 2015 earthquake this dropped to 25,000 in 2016, but rebounded to a reported 58,000 in 2019 (State Party of Nepal, 2019). Assessing the potential impact of such dramatic growth is made more difficult by the complex nature of visitation to Sagarmatha National Park.
i) - As visitors stay for around 12 days on average the number of ‘visitor impact days’ (in 2014/15) was around 420,000 visitor days per year (around 700,000 in 2019).
ii) - Further complexity comes from the number of non-tourist support crew in the form of guides, porters, cooks etc. who also impact on the property. It is generally accepted that each organised tour visitor is supported by a support crew of three, while visitors that organise their own trek usually hire the services of two porter/guides. Based on a formula provided by the Nepal Mountaineering Association, the Advisory Mission estimated that the number of total user days (tourists plus support crew) for 2014/15 would be have been 1,735,000 (2,871,000 in 2019).
iii) - 70% or more of the visitor pressure is concentrated during two 8-10-week periods (the autumn and spring seasons) when visitors experience overcrowding.
It is not yet known how this alarming increase in the number of users and their impact on garbage disposal, human waste management, general sanitation, trail erosion, overcrowding at monasteries and religious sites, congestion on trails and bridges and excessive noise are affecting the natural ecosystem. The 2016 IUCN Advisory Mission recommends that the State Party establish an appropriate carrying capacity, particularly for peak periods, and to implement an objective analysis of a wide range of protected area management considerations (IUCN, 2016). The Management Plan provides a broad range of objectives and well considered strategic actions to address the threat of the increasing tourism on the property. While it does not directly address the recommendation to establish a 'carrying capacity' for the property, it does propose to study the impact of tourism on ecological aspects to determine the Limits of Acceptable Change to help in devising a site-specific method for regulating tourism. 

The melting glaciers issue is highlighted in the Management Plan, which notes that the impact of climate change on the property is related to avalanches, debris-flow, glacial lake outburst floods, glacial fluctuations and glacial surge. If appropriate measures are not taken to minimize the risk, the impact of climate change could have devastating impact upon the flora and fauna of the property and the melting of glaciers is affecting its outstanding scenic value. The Management Plan recommends the establishment of monitoring and early warning systems and the artificial draining of glacial-lakes to help avoid disasters (DNPWC, 2016).

The Management Plan notes that while killing of wildlife species by the local people is not common practice, crop depredation by Himalayan Tahr and livestock killing by Snow Leopard are frequently reported and retaliatory killing of Tahr and Leopards is a concern. The Plan also notes that poaching continues to be a threat as market value for illegal wildlife parts exists; poaching of musk deer for illegal trade of its musk pod is one of the major challenges for management. The Plan provides for substantial input to patrolling and monitoring to suppress this threat which, compounded by the impacts of tourism and climate change, poses a serious threat to important wildlife species of the property (DNPWC, 2016).

The area of the property between 3,500 m and 5,000 m altitudes are dominated by shrubs and grass cover, which are used for livestock grazing and collecting fodder, wild foods, medicinal and aromatic plants. Despite rangelands’ understood significance, there is inadequate information on their present management status. It has been reported that the rangelands in and around the property have come under increased pressure of human interventions and irregular grazing in the recent years. While settlement of grazing rights in the Himalayan Parks often leads to conflicts and controversies, it is not possible to achieve a complete ban on livestock grazing in the Himalayan protected areas. The major issues are: (i) inadequate research related to high elevation rangelands; (ii) unmanaged livestock grazing, leading to wildlife vs livestock competition; and (iii) the risk of transferring disease from the livestock to the wild animals and vice versa. The Management Plan for the site notes the need for health monitoring and surveillance for the wild animal diseases to be done regularly (DNPWC, 2016).

Conservation of high mountain wetlands has become an increasingly significant global issue in the recent years, especially given that these wetlands function as water towers for the world. They are important resting sites and habitats for a significant number of migratory and some resident water birds. The high-altitude flora and fauna are important for global biological diversity as there are very few other places where life exists at such unique high altitudes. In Nepal, very limited studies and research have been conducted focusing on high mountain wetlands. There is paucity of information, therefore, making it difficult to get a clear idea on their status especially with regards to the threats and their management. The wetlands of the Sagarmatha National Park, listed as a Ramsar site in 2007, cover an area of 7,700 ha. Out of the cluster of six lakes, Gokyo is the most important wetland, and is believed to be the abode of snake-god, and is, therefore, culturally important. The local people are also dependent on the site for ecotourism, which is the main economic activity of the people living there. The major threats to the wetlands are garbage and sewage left by visitors because of unregulated tourism, water pollution, over-grazing of pastures, unsustainable harvest of natural resources and impact of climate change. They are compounded by an inadequate understanding of the wetland systems and multiple ownership with poor institutional mechanisms to coordinate management (DNPWC, 2016). The Management Plan proposes to prepare an inventory of wetlands and conduct assessment and  monitoring of the lakes to keep them free from pollution and to strengthen awareness programs for conservation of the wetlands. The rapid increase in tourism would be increasing the impact of garbage and sewage pollution beyond the capacity of management to implement effective intervention measures.