Kluane / Wrangell-St Elias / Glacier Bay / Tatshenshini-Alsek

Previous mineral development in the area of Tatshenshini-Alsek Park and a pipeline adjacent to the Haines Road have left environmental liabilities which are being monitored (States Parties of Canada and the United States of America, 2006). Abandoned Mine Lands (AML) and abandoned oil/ gas lands may have serious associated safety issues and resource impacts (Hood et al., 2006; State Parties of Canada and the United States of America, 2014). Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve has 92 mine sites and 29 mine features in need of reclamation in the park (Burghardt et al., 2014). The park is actively trying to reclaim and improve the safety of contaminated mining sites in the park and are actively trying to acquire the claims (NPS, 2016).

However, inholdings within Wrangell St. Elias have an increase in mining activities with potential to pollute the site (State Parties of Canada and the United States of America, 2023).

Mining in the Kluane National Park and Reserve region is limited to outside of the site and is also of a relatively small area per individual project and are typically placer operations. The main consequence of these sites is habitat fragmentation. Large mining potential exists outside of Kluane National Park and Reserve. There is one set of hard rock claims with the potential to be developed into a fully operational mine outside the site. Legacy mining issues exist in the Tatshenshini-Alsek Provincial Park, including contaminated mine sites being monitored on a 5-year revisitation cycle. Trends to date are not alarming, but there is potential for acid rock leaching in at the Windy Craggy mine site. With cobalt mining on the rise, the large deposit in the Tatshenshini-Alsek Provincial Park has continued interest (State Parties of Canada and the United States of America, 2023).

Elevated mercury levels have been found in fish in Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve (Eagles-Smith et al., 2014). In a more detailed study for the park, mercury bioaccumulation and risk were found to be highly variable among lakes and species, which suggests the important role of the characteristics of each site and the need for more intensive sampling to develop appropriate risk benchmarks that show a more robust portrayal of ecosystem risk and allow the development of adequate regulations (Kowalski et al., 2014). Elevated mercury levels also exist in the fish, otters, and wolves in and adjacent to Glacier Bay National Park (Roffler et al. 2025)

Commercial fishing in Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve continues to decrease and will soon be completely phased out (States Parties of Canada and the United States of America, 2023). Commercial fishing, principally for salmon (Oncorhynchus sp), Tanner crab (Chionoecetes bairdi), and halibut (Hippoglossus stenolepis), in the past removed as much as half a million pounds of biomass from Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve proper's marine waters annually. This removal of biomass has poorly known but likely important effects on marine ecosystems, including associated nearshore and riparian habitats. Regulations affecting commercial fisheries in Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve limit the types of allowed fisheries and the number of participants. Effective protection from fishing mortality of species with large movement patterns, such as tanner (Chionoecetes bairdi) and red skin (Paralithodes camtschaticus) crabs is challenging because they move between areas with and without fishing restrictions (Taggart et al. 2008). Overall, the impact of decreasing commercial fishing on non-guided sport fishing remains to be seen.

Fish in Kluane National Park and Reserve are the only wildlife species Parks Canada permits harvest by licensed non-First Nation harvesters. Although gillnet surveys show a healthy and stable lake trout population in Kathleen lake, the angler survey in 2015 warns of an unsustainable recreational fishery (Wong, 2017). Fishing pressures are thought to be increasing in Kluane National Park and Reserve (State Parties of Canada and the United States of America, 2023).

Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve regulates the number of vessels entering the bay and has a strict code of regulations about their movements (United States, eCFR, 2024). Nevertheless, there is concern about the disturbance caused by small, medium and large vessels at different scales. Vessels affect emissions, air quality, visibility, noise, animal behaviour and can cause death or injury of whales in GBNP (Kipple and Gabriele, 2004; Mölders et al., 2013; McKenna et al., 2017; Molders and Gende, 2015; Frankel and Gabriele, 2017). In 2018 a cruise-ship accidentally leaked graywater in Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve (Resneck, 2019a) and people have demanded suspension of operation permits until water and air pollution monitors are installed on ships in Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve (Ulrich, 2020).

Vessel-whale collisions, albeit extremely rare, affect the humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae, LC) population in and near this park (Gende et al., 2011; Harris et al., 2012; Resneck, 2019b). While whale detection methods have increased as technologies are further developed, whales likely remain at risk of collision following detection (Helm, et. al., 2023).

Kittlitz’s murrelet (Brachyramphus brevirostris, NT) and marbled murrelets (Brachyramphus marmoratus, EN) can also be disturbed by cruise-ships (Marcella, 2014; Marcella et al., 2017).

According to a Kluane National Park and Reserve bulletin, Dall sheep (Ovis dalli, LC) are increasingly susceptible to mortality from vehicle collisions on the section of the Alaska Highway at the base of the Thechàl Dhâl mountain (Parks Canada, 2020). Given the adverse effects of aircraft on disturbance-prone species such as mountain goats (Cote, 1996), the impacts and frequency of glacier air tours that may increase in popularity as glaciers retreat, should be monitored.

Effects of climate change include retreat of glaciers and melting of permafrost soils, declining sea ice, changing ocean temperatures and chemistry, increased coastal erosion, and more extensive insect outbreaks, wildfire, plant productivity and diversity, ecosystems and predator-prey interactions (Grabowski, 2015; Larsen et al., 2014; Chapin et al., 2014; Markon et al., 2012; State Parties of Canada and the United States, 2014; Boonstra et al., 2018; NASA, 2018; Roland et al., 2019; States Parties of Canada and the United States, 2014; Flowers et al., 2014; Shugar et al., 2017; Krebs et al., 2014).

The warming trend over the last century is projected to continue and data from NOAA’s National Centers for Environmental Information indicate Alaska’s statewide average annual temperature has been increasing by 0.6°F per decade since 1950 (NPS, 2023). Model results indicate a further increase by up to 8.5˚C by 2040 depending on the location within Kluane National Park and Reserve and RCP scenario (Parker, 2018). The trend of increasing total annual precipitation (~236 mm (100%) since 1945) is expected to continue with an increase of up to 200 mm from 2011-2040 (Parker, 2018). From 1985 to 2020, glacier-covered area in Alaska decreased by 13%, or 3,253 square miles (8,425 km2). During that later interval, the largest changes in glacier-covered area in Alaska occurred at elevations of 2,625–7,218 feet (800–2,200 m) and in southern Alaska—the region that encompasses the greatest glacier-covered area (NPS, 2023). Alaska alone accounts for nearly a quarter, of global glacier loss. The vast majority of melting is happening in mountainous, coastal regions like Southeast, where glaciers are more concentrated. Glacier Bay National Park, for instance, has lost about 20% of its glacial area since 1985 (Ellfeldt, 2025; GlaMBIE Team, 2025).

Increase of mean annual runoff mainly by rain input has been predicted for Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve and a peak flows shift from late summer to early fall (Crumley et al., 2019). Acidification effects can include changes in water and soil chemistry that impact ecosystem health. (Schirokauer et al., 2014). Reisdorph and Mathis (2014, 2015) confirmed that the ocean waters of Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve are acidified. Due to rapid deglaciation occurring in Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve, neutral or slightly acidic fresh water is diluting the bay water and reducing its natural buffering capacity, against acidification (Ochs, 2017). Phase II of the study of ocean acidification in Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve ended in 2018. Results from this phase will help to understand the effects of acidification on the base of the food chain (Ochs, 2017).

Shugar et al. (2017) document a change in river flow from the rapidly retreating and thinning Kaskawulsh Glacier in Kluane National Park and Reserve; this change diverted most water from the Ä’ą̈y Chù/Slim’s River to the Kaskawulsh River (IUCN Consultation, 2020) and is also associated with reduced fishing opportunities in Kluane Lake (Department of Fisheries and Oceans, 2018). As a result of this same event, the level of Kluane Lake outside the site has dropped significantly, affecting access to and use of the lake. Longer term impacts on fisheries in the lake are unknown. This has also resulted in an increase in significant dust storms that can impair visibility in the Ä’äy Chù valley causing difficulties for both park users and people driving on the highway outside of the site (State Parties of Canada and the United States of America, 2023).

In Yukon, Canada, average air temperature has increased by 2 ◦C over the past 50 years and, by the end of the century up to 6.9 ◦C of further warming is predicted, along with increased climate variability. As a result of these and other changes, vegetation communities are predicted to shift in space and composition. Changes to the vegetation assemblages across multiple ecological units or bioclimate zones will impact carbon and nutrient cycling, animal habitat, biodiversity levels, and other ecosystem processes. Yukon has a wide variety of vegetation communities, and paleo ecological evidence indicates that significant vegetation changes have occurred throughout the territory in the past. warming and drought are already re-sponsible for rising mortality rates of boreal trees in some parts of north western North America and general patterns of browning, or decreasing NDVI. In continuous forests, white spruce showed consistent growth declines across both latitude and elevation (Reid et al. 2022). Potential changes in vegetation cover due to climate change, are predicted for the Wrangell-Kluane complex, where it is expected to see an increase of woodland and temperate forest at the expense of tundra (Holsinger et al., 2019). Predicted core range for plant species in Haines Junction is expected to increase from 13 species, to 51 species by 2040 (Parker, 2018). These changes in vegetation cause cascading ecological responses as well as great concern and challenges for managers preserving biodiversity. Permafrost modeling for Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve predicts that only 42% of the park will be covered by permafrost by the 2050s (Panda et al., 2014; Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve State of the Parks Report, 2016).

Wildfire season is expected to increase by over 60 days throughout most of Kluane National Park and Reserve (Parker 2018). There has been a 72% departure from the historic level of wildfire with only 380 ha burned since 1950 in Kluane National Park and Reserve. A fire management plan is being developed. Changing fire weather and fuel structure may contribute to larger, more frequent and more severe fires than the historical average (Wong, 2017).

The spruce bark beetle (Dendroctonus rufipennis) has caused unprecedented levels of mortality of white spruce (Picea glauca) in southwest Yukon and Alaska (Raffa et al. 2008). The most recent spruce beetle outbreak started in Kluane National Park and Reserve around 1990. The outbreak was first observed in 1994 by which time the beetle had already caused over 32,000 ha of mortality. The beetle then moved into public land and First Nations Settlement Land north and south of Haines Junction in the Shakwak Trench. Over the next 15 years, the beetle continued to kill vast tracts of spruce within and west of Kluane National Park and Reserve. During the outbreak more than half of the mature spruce were killed over approximately 400,000 ha. One of the main differences between the recent and historic outbreaks was the mode of initiation. In the past, outbreaks were associated with certain stand-level abiotic disturbances, such as windthrow, fire or right-of-way clearing. The recent outbreak is unique in that climate moderation was the initiation factor. The climatic conditions favoured increased beetle fecundity. Over the same period, warmer winters also resulted in reduced brood mortality. The region continues to show low levels of spruce beetle infestation (Forest Management Branch, 2023).

Mammalian herbivores and the overall ecosystem in Kluane National Park and Reserve are likely to be impacted by climate warming due to disturbances caused by increased wildfire frequency, shrubification and rain-on-snow events (Boonstra et al., 2018). Rattenbury et al., (2018) predict that expected increase in adverse weather events may impact the populations of mountain ungulates. The decline in moose is likely explained by some combination of predation by wolves, and harvest by humans and winter conditions. Understanding climatic controls on the Park’s moose population which have low to no harvest will help understand the dynamics of moose populations outside of the park (IUCN Consultation, 2020).

A severe heatwave in Glacier Bay in 2015-2016 caused a sharp decline in the abundance and survival of humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae, LC) (Gabrielle, et.al., 2022). In 2024, humpback whale reproduction rebounded to levels not documented since before the 2014-2016 NE Pacific marine heatwave. A record-high number of calves (24) were identified in Glacier Bay/Icy Strait, yet this still does not replace all the whales lost during the heatwave (IUCN Consultation, 2025).
Warmer than normal temperatures in Glacier Bay have the potential to increase tsunamis as a result of landslides (USGS, 2020).