K’gari

Over 200 invasive species are present in the World Heritage area (DES, 2019). These include weeds such as bitou bush, Easter cassia, groundsel, invasive grass species, Abrus, Singapore daisy and asparagus fern; pests such as the Jamella pandanus leafhopper; feral animals including cane toads, cats, horses and coastal brown ants; and pathogens such as myrtle rust. Management is good and some species like horses and foxes have not been detected in repeat and ongoing monitoring in excess of 5 years and are considered eradicated.

However, work on cane toads and ants has been less successful but ongoing (IUCN Consultation, 2017; 2024). Myrtle rust, an exotic airborne pathogen, was first detected on K’gari in 2013 across a range of Myrtaceae species and based on the most recent monitoring in August 2020, has now become well established, impacting on vegetation regeneration following wildfire, particularly for Melaleuca quinquenervia (IUCN Consultation, 2020b). Research is underway to establish impact levels, at both a species and plant community level, to assist in the development of species conservation and management plans. The Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries is working in collaboration with the Department of Environment, Tourism, Science and Innovation and the Butchulla Land and Sea Rangers to enhance biosecurity and awareness of Myrtle Rust on the island (IUCN Consultation, 2020a).

The extensive wildfire on the island in late 2020 impacted 46% of the K’gari section of Great Sandy National Park with the most extensively impacted (82%) regional ecosystem being RE 12.2.9 (Banksia aemula low open woodland) (Meiklejohn et al, 2023). The fire sensitive foredune communities (RE 12.2.14) that were significantly impacted by the fire are likely to be less resilient to invasion by Chrysanthemoides monilifera subspecies rotundata (bitou bush) and the risk of new invasions is high due to the large number of vehicles and widespread camping in the coastal zone (Meiklejohn et al, 2023). Ongoing monitoring has not detected any new infestations.

Illegal firewood collection by tourists presented a problem. However, a range of park management tools have been employed and this practice has been largely eliminated (IUCN Consultation, 2020a, 2024).
While firewood collection itself is a low threat to the World Heritage values, the 2020 bushfire which had a serious impact on the island started from an illegal campfire (see fire hazard threat).

Long-term traditional fire management practices maintained K’gari (Fraser Island) floristic diversity and complexity. Historical European fire management may have increased the risk of damaging bushfire on the island.

Cultural burning (cool, patchwork burns) coupled with planned burning aligned with the Bioregional Planned Burn Guidelines (DES 2022), across broad landscape scale provides opportunity to reduce the risk of damaging bushfires on the island under likely future climate change scenarios and maintain biodiversity on K’gari (Fraser Island). Cultural burns will help reinforce Butchulla identity and cultural knowledge relating to K’gari (Fraser Island). Butchulla Land and Sea Rangers and scientists are working with Queensland Parks and Wildlife and Partnerships (QPWS&P) staff to develop fire management strategies and policies that take account of cultural burn requirements (IUCN Consultation, 2020a). Data show fire regimes can alter vegetation community dynamics through changes in fire frequency and intensity (Stewart et al., 2020). The window of opportunity for planned burns is reducing as a result of climate change. Changes in plant communities may be driven by future climate change and accelerated by the increase in fires (Stewart and Moss, 2015). It is felt that modern regimes driven by climate change will result in a decrease in native biodiversity with a possible increase in pyrogenic invasive plant species (Stewart et al., 2017).
In late 2020, extensive wildfire impacted on nearly half of the island and in excess of 80% of some vegetation communities (Meiklejohn et al., 2023). While the majority of vegetation communities are fire adapted, widespread and intense fires such as this may negatively impact communities and associated natural and cultural values. Some fire sensitive communities were significantly impacted (55% of the foredune complex, which includes highly fire sensitive Casuarina equisetifolia (coastal she-oak) and 69% of the beach ridge communities were burnt, in some places at high to severe intensity) with likely impacts on resilience and recovery (Meiklejohn et al., 2023). Others such as the rainforests, mangroves and saltmarshes were little impacted. An assessment of recovery of the vegetation by Qld Herbarium found that robust recovery was occurring across all the nine REs sampled with the exception of the foredune complex (Neldner et al. 2021). A report on post-fire monitoring of wetlands, threatened species and threatened ecological communities (Collett et al., 2023) that assesses 100 wetland sites found a broad distribution of both native and introduced species but also a " concerning number of instances of potential localised extinctions where wallum frog and fish species had been recorded historically, but not after the 2019-2020 fires" (Collett et al., 2023). Native wallum fish species were more abundant in unburnt sites while introduced fish species were more abundant in fire-affected sites (Collett et al., 2023).

The ecological assessment of the northern lakes’ precinct in June 2022 (to evaluate impacts of the Duling fire and recovery) found window lakes showed very minor fire impacts and were in good condition. Most other wetland types, other than in popular visitor sites, were also mostly in good condition. Exceptions were some peat-based wetlands that had burnt under dry conditions either in the Duling fire and/or previous fire(s). very minor fire impacts on window lakes. Previously unrecorded populations of fish species were found at several wetlands including the Endangered honey blue eye and ornate rainbowfish. Some previously recorded populations of these two spp were also reconfirmed. Of concern was the absence of these species from two previously known locations – one in the northern lakes’ precinct and on the south of the precinct. Fire seems unlikely to be the causal factor, with lake drying suspected to be the cause. Five native frog spp were recorded in the wetland in the northern lakes precinct with threatened and near threatened frogs being observed at many sites (Melzer et al. 2024).

The likelihood of climate change induced increases in extreme and widespread wildfires, in the absence of a managed fire regime, means that the threat level for fire hazards is increasing.

The large numbers of 4WD vehicles driving along the beaches and beach camping disturb the littoral fauna, changes sand deposition and can disrupt the sense of wilderness, 'exceptional natural beauty' and 'uninterrupted sweeps of ocean beach' in some areas. Increased visitation also disturbs the native fauna and flora, especially by trampling vegetation around lakes. Schlacher et al. (2008) showed that macrobenthic invertebrate populations are reduced on off-road vehicle-impacted beaches and the death of such species can impact on sandy-beach food chains thus influencing the abundance of birds, crabs and fish that rely on them for food. Vehicle related impacts are concentrated around visitor sites and travel routes and are unlikely to be negatively altering on-going geomorphological processes at the landscape level (IUCN Consultation, 2017). The impact of beach camping and unrestricted camping in dunes (especially without toilet facilities) has been shown to degrade the coastal dunes (Hockings and Twyford 1997) and in a preliminary study conducted in 2015 (Carter et al., 2015) that suggested nutrient levels in the watertable were enriched in camping zones.
Overall visitor use of the island has showed a steady growth over the past 5 years, and especially in the beginning of 2022 when COVID related travel restrictions for domestic tourists were removed (Earthcheck, 2024). There is a lack of quantitative data on environmental and social impacts (especially cumulative impacts) of current levels of visitation on the values of the island but concern is being expressed, based on perceptions and more anecdotal data by stakeholder groups (Earthcheck, 2024).

Tourist numbers may have doubled since inscription in 1992; and tourism, along with climate change, is considered as a major driver for many of the current threats facing the World Heritage site today. Earlier water quality monitoring by University of Queensland and the Queensland Government of several lakes (ranging from low to high visitation) concluded that water quality was good and unchanged from monitoring conducted in 1988 (Arthington et al., 1989; Moss, 2009; DSITIA, 2012). However, at beach camping zones nutrient levels at the water table interface and beach flows show enrichment with faecal coliforms and faecal sterols resulting in negative environmental impacts of these zones (Carter et al., 2015). Regular and more frequent monitoring and research on water quality in the lakes is beneficial and has been incorporated into the draft QPWS&P Values Based Management thematic strategy (DES, 2019). In 2019, the Butchulla Land and Sea Rangers commenced a Water Quality Monitoring program. The Queensland Department of the Environment, Tourism, Science and Innovation are working with Fraser Coast Regional Council to improve management of waste transfer stations and historical sites which may contain asbestos. Fraser Coast Regional Council recently developed the Fraser Coast Waste Strategy 2019-2029, with plans to upgrade transfer stations at Eurong, Happy Valley and Orchid Beach by 2024 (IUCN Consultation, 2020a). In 2024, a major investigation led by Burnett Mary Regional Group with the Butchulla Aboriginal Corporation, CSIRO, Department of Environment, Science and Innovation and University of Adelaide, commenced to investigate K’gari’s groundwater resources (IUCN consultation, 2024).

Overall, climate change impacts including higher temperatures, rising sea levels, and more frequent and extreme weather events pose a very high potential threat to species composition, coastal processes, fire regimes and hydrological processes (Gontz et al., 2015; Wardell-Johnson et al., 2015). Increase in fire frequency, intensity and sequence is expected due to climate change drivers (Stewart and Moss, 2015). Fire regimes may also increase myrtle rust susceptibility. Myrtacea may be vulnerable when they sprout new growth after fire; Coutinhou (1998) notes that eucalyptus rust can be fatal when it infects coppice growth of highly susceptible species. Predictions include increasing numbers of lower rainfall days/drought followed by heavy rainfall events which may further disrupt species distribution and abundance. Changing conditions will also increase biosecurity risk with the movement and prevalence of pest species including wind-borne myrtle rust and new weed species (IUCN Consultation, 2020b). A recent report by CSIRO, Managers of World Heritage Properties in Australia, and Indigenous Reference Group (2022) has assessed the likely impacts and vulnerabilites of Australia's World Heritage properties to climate change. For K'gari (Fraser Island), the report concludes that "The relationship between the coastal dune sand mass, hydrology, soil formation and the structure of plant communities and wetlands on K’gari are strongly interconnected. Sea level rise, changes to ocean transport processes, changes in fire regimes and increased storm intensity and wave strength and direction pose important and irreversible threats to the physical properties underpinning K’gari’s Outstanding Universal Values." Ex Tropical Cyclone Alfred impacted Southeast Queensland with severe weather and flooding between 4 March and 31 March 2025.

Workshops undertaken between 9 December 2024 and February 2025 with the K’gari World Heritage Advisory Committee, provided up-to-date information regarding the impacts on the OUV. Initial natural and cultural values assessments, in coordination with Butchulla Peoples representatives and QPWS technical advisors, indicate limited impacts relative to other SEQ protected area managed sand islands. Management capability was impeded by impacts on communications infrastructure during the event requiring implementation of contingency communication measures. These impacts have been resolved. Visitor management infrastructure impacts were largely focused on beach camping access (due to high eroded dune faces) and road washouts and closures due to isolated tree fall. Immediate recovery action has resolved the majority of impacted sites, with some longer-term road recovery works in planning.
Impacts to the natural values, including those pertaining to the OUV, were primarily focused on the coastline, with significant beach erosion, accumulation of ocean current born flood and tidal debris from off island locations, and loss of near shore vegetation at some locations. Inland impacts include isolated tree fall and siltation of some drainage lines. Natural and Cultural values recovery to date has included clean-up of the majority of flood debris, closure of camping areas in the vicinity of significant erosion and/or vegetation loss to enable natural recovery, and siltation clearing of road related drainage and siltation capture infrastructure. While initial values assessment, including health checks (condition assessments) indicates no significant event related impacts outside of natural cyclical ecological processes, with the ability of natural regeneration QPWS has designed and is implementing a more comprehensive natural values assessment programme. The comprehensive assessment report is envisaged to be complete within the first quarter of 2025/26 and will inform any necessary ongoing recovery actions relating to biosecurity, fire, and visitor management actions (IUCN Consultation, 2025).

The large number of 4WD vehicles (including tour buses) used by visitors, commercial tourists and residents and coastal urban development compact the soil and provoke erosion and siltation, filling pristine dune lakes with sediment (GHD, 2002; Waldron, 2023, 2021). The impacts of recreational use and vehicular access have been under active management to ensure resource conservation (State Party of Australia, 2003). Several road sections have been realigned and site access redesigned to minimise sedimentation issues (IUCN Consultation, 2017). Sea level rise of approximately 100mm since the early 1900s may also affect erosion rates (CSIRO, undated) and recent global predictions of up to 1 m of sea-level change by 2100 would result in significant disruption of both coastal dunes and the key beach transportation network on the island. Current observations of road degradation show that a more sustainable transport system should be implemented to mitigate further erosion from vehicular and weather impacts (Waldron, 2023, 2021).

The increased number of visitors to K’gari has resulted in a range of continuing pressures that are contributing to visitor management issues on the island. The impacts are placing immediate pressure on infrastructure at key sites, particularly at peak periods, and are contributing to the congestion of daily vehicle movements directly related to traffic from barge arrivals and tidal patterns (Earthcheck, 2022). A report by Earthcheck has also determined that pressure is being placed on “bucket list” sites, such as Eli Creek and Lake McKenzie, and creating associated visitor behavioural issues, including activities that extend visitor zones. These are exacerbated by higher levels of free and independent travellers and by visitors who have not previously visited the island, particularly since the COVID-19 pandemic. Current estimates place visitation somewhere between 450,00 and 500,000 per year. While there is capacity for the island to absorb this level of tourism visitation, the true number could be as high as 800,000 to one million visitors per year according to K'gari's World Heritage Advisory Committee (K'gari (Fraser Island) World Heritage Advisory Committee, 2023). Visitation is expected to increase in the next decade, particularly due to the Olympics in Brisbane in 2032. National park reports also state that 337,000 camper nights and almost 67,000 vehicle access permits were purchased for K'gari in 2023. While overtourism may be considered 'data deficient' if no accurate means of reporting is available, there is sufficient evidence to argue that K'gari's values are at risk and will require effective management approaches to mitigate.