Ningaloo Coast

Limestone quarrying currently occurs inside the site at a modest scale, through an extraction lease; and outside of the site at a larger and expanding scale (State Party of Australia, 2023). Current impacts from oil and gas operations include effects on migratory species, connectivity and ecological linkages within and adjacent to the site. There is potential for an increase in impacts and cumulative impact on OUV including effects on migratory species from seismic testing, drilling, and operations (State Party of Australia, 2023). The waters surrounding the Muiron and Sunday Islands are highly prospective for hydrocarbons and exploration is anticipated to increase in this region over the next decade. Government policy prohibits drilling for petroleum and production within Ningaloo Marine Park but not within the Muiron Islands Marine Management Area (Management Plan for the Ningaloo Marine Park and Muiron Islands Marine Management Area 2005-2015).

Nevertheless, the threat is localised and the Conservation Commission and Department collaborate with other Government bodies such as the Department of Mines and Petroleum and the EPA to prevent or mitigate impacts of mining on conservation reserve values.

Marine conservation reserves are vested in the MPRA under the CALM Act and the Department of Conservation and Land Management (CALM) is responsible for their management. The CALM Act and the Wildlife Conservation Act 1950 (WC Act) and associated regulations provide legislative protection for flora and fauna within the reserves. The CALM Act (Section 13C (1)(2)) states that a marine management area is established “… for the purpose of managing and protecting the marine environment so that it may be used for conservation, recreational, scientific and commercial purposes." Commercial purposes include: mining, within the meaning of the Mining Act 1978; production of petroleum, and associated activities. The Mining Act 1978 (Mining Act) and the Petroleum and Geothermal Energy Resources Act 1967 (Petroleum and Geothermal Energy Act) generally take precedence over the CALM Act in respect to national parks and other terrestrial reserves, and may override the contents of management plans with regards to mining and petroleum matters. However, exploration and other activities conducted under the Mining Act and the Petroleum Act are subject to conditions intended to prevent or mitigate potential environmental impacts. The need to protect the special attributes of the broader Cape Range area is recognised in the EPA's position statement for the area, which stipulates that development which potentially threatens the maintenance of ecological integrity must demonstrate avoidance or amelioration of those threats (EPA 1999). All mining proposals with the potential to impact on the key values of the conservation reserve system should be referred to the EPA for their consideration of assessment under the Environmental Protection Act (Cape Range National Park Management Plan No 65, 2010).

Drilling for petroleum exploration or production in Ningaloo Marine Park is not permitted. Seismic exploration is permissible in the Park subject to EPA assessment. There are active exploration permits operated by Lansvale Oil and Gas Pty Ltd and Victoria Petroleum Pty Ltd that overlap the Park, however only seismic exploration could be permitted in the Park. The area surrounding the Muiron and Sunday islands is prospective for petroleum and there have previously been drilling operations conducted in the area. The Muiron Islands Marine Management Area does not preclude future petroleum exploration and development in either the conservation areas or un-zoned areas. Any exploration or production activities would be subject to environmental assessment. The primary role of reserve management in relation to hydrocarbon exploration will be to ensure that the reserve values are not impacted by any petroleum activities, in liaison with DoIR and the DoE/EPA (Management Plan for the Ningaloo Marine Park and Muiron Islands Marine Management Area 2005-2015).

There is a risk of oil spills from vessels and production platforms and collisions with reefs, marine wildlife and other vessels adjacent to the World Heritage site. There are several offshore oil and gas extraction operations near the site and a number of pending on- and offshore project proposals, which potentially pose a significant threat to the World Heritage values. Offshore petroleum incidents, such as accidental discharge of oil or other pollutants pose a significant and most likely irreversible threat to the marine life and ecosystems. Spills of other chemicals could also become a more prevalent risk as new fuels are introduced in the shipping industry (IUCN Consultation, 2024). Certain components of the marine fauna found in the Ningaloo Coast World Heritage property could be lost forever in the event of an oil spill, especially coral reefs and sessile invertebrates (IUCN Consultation, 2017). The National Offshore Petroleum Safety and Environmental Management Authority (NOPSEMA) carefully assesses the environmental impacts and risks from petroleum activities through Environment Plans and Oil Pollution Emergency Plans prepared by titleholders. The onus is on the proponent to show where there are threats of serious or irreversible environmental damage, lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason to postpone measures to prevent environmental degradation in any proposal or activity. The Western Australian Government and the Ningaloo Coast World Heritage Advisory Committee provide advice to industry on activities and environment plans that have the potential to impact the Outstanding Universal Value of the World Heritage site (IUCN Consultation, 2020).

The Ningaloo Coast is situated in an isolated location with a small regional population with localised urban development. Ningaloo Coast experiences domestic and international tourism, and direct threats from human activities are relatively low but increasing. Potential development of new boating facilities or tourism accommodation has the potential to impact areas within the World Heritage site. The arid climate results in extremely low levels of runoff. In addition, the Ningaloo Coast Regional Strategy Carnarvon to Exmouth, a 30-year strategic land-use plan, limits significant development to the towns of Exmouth and Carnarvon, both of which are outside the nominated area (State Party of Australia, 2010). A future directions paper reviewing the Ningaloo Coast Regional Strategy Carnarvon to Exmouth was released for public comment in January 2019 (Western Australian Planning Commission, 2019). The Ningaloo Coast Regional Strategy Carnarvon to Exmouth is currently being reviewed (DPLH, 2019). Additional National Park and Conservation reserves have been created along the Ningaloo Coast (September 2024) which have provided a long term buffer from residential and urban development. Water abstraction associated with higher human residency can impact the subterranean fauna and TECs (see potential threats).

Invasive alien species, most importantly foxes, cats, goats and weeds on land and some marine species are satisfactorily monitored and controlled (IUCN, 2011). Management efforts have led to the reduction of goat and fox numbers to negligible levels in the past ten years. Feral cats, although reduced in number, continue to persist throughout the terrestrial area and have become a focus of significant control work (IUCN Consultation, 2020). The Redclaw Crayfish (Cherax quadricarinatus) which is endemic to the Northern Territory and tropical Queensland is now found throughout the Pilbara and is likely to be introduced to Cape Range wetlands in coming years. The arrival of the Redclaw Crayfish could affect freshwater communities (IUCN Consultation, 2024). Feral species and their potential impacts in the marine environment are poorly understood. For example, the Western Australian Museum and Griffith University recently identified a non-native species of jellyfish (Cassiopeia Xamachana) in the Ningaloo Marine Park, whose origin and potential impacts are not known. Predation of marine turtle hatchlings on beaches by native ghost crabs and native seagulls appears to be unsustainable for populations of marine turtles (particularly loggerhead turtles, Caretta caretta) to survive (DBCA unpublished data)

Fires from anthropogenic sources, increased severe weather (lightning strikes) and burning through altered landscapes remain a threat to the terrestrial vegetation (IUCN Consultation, 2017).

A Fire Management Strategy (DCBA Fire Management Strategy, updated 2023) outlines the key strategic priorities for fire management across the breadth of DBCA’s bushfire risk mitigation and suppression responsibilities. Prescribed burns are carried out regularly. The department's Parks and Wildlife Service conducts approximately 130 prescribed burns each year, which are chosen from around 400 prescriptions within the annual Burn Options Program, including areas within the property (DCBA, 2025).

Increasing visitation and pressures on natural values, sensitive coastal habitats and ecological communities continue to remain major threats to the property. Visitor numbers have continued to increase together with associated pressures, such as increased recreational fishing and direct impacts on sensitive coastal ecological communities (IUCN Consultation, 2020). Pressure from recreational line fishing, spearfishing, boating, wildlife interactions, snorkelling and associated wildlife behavioural change remains, particularly as visitation in general is increasing and spread further throughout the year. The popularity of the site with incoming recreational fishers and their growing numbers is the main driver of conflicts, the main impacts being the depletion of stocks. Recreational fishing is an important source of economic income, livelihoods and relaxation/sport for many local people in Exmouth (Ningaloo). Unmanaged visitor access to the property and visitor recreation activities within and adjacent to the property continue to remain major threats to the property. The karst systems are impacted by illegal cave entries and general tourism pressures including cars driving offtrack, illegal camping, extra track formations etc. (IUCN Consultation, 2024). DBCA in partnership with the Nganhurra Thanardi Garrbu Aboriginal Corporation (NTGAC) Prescribed Body Corporate (PBC) continue to implement on ground operational works to mitigate impacts from unmanaged visitor access and recreations within and adjacent the southern portion of the property (IUCN Consultation, 2020).

The management of whale shark watching in Ningaloo is widely recognised as world-leading best practice of ecologically sustainable whale shark ecotourism. Research has found that while there are signs of disturbance when tourism vessels are present including short-term behavioural changes, there is no evidence of any long-term impacts on whale shark behaviour and visitation patterns (Jones 2021; Reynolds et al. 2024; Tyne et al. 2025). Rather, variability in environmental parameters has been found to have a far greater influence on whale shark presence. The whale shark management program (Department of Parks and Wildlife, 2013) is currently being reviewed (draft 2025) to ensure contemporary and adaptive management for the conservation of whale sharks. The whale shark management program provides best-practice interaction protocols to ensure a safe interaction that prevents the animals from harm or disturbance. DBCA also licenses commercial tour operators to ensure best-practice standards (IUCN Consultation, 2025).

Learmonth Air Weapons Range Facility covering about 18,954 hectares within the World Heritage site is used as a defence training area. It includes an ancient reef-complex and cave fauna of exceptional importance (IUCN, 2011). The RAAF Base Learmonth is subject to a redevelopment and increase in military exercises in close proximity to the vulnerable (EPBC Act) Black-flanked rock wallaby (Petrogale lateralis), the threat to this species should be monitored to ensure there are no adverse impacts (IUCN Consultation, 2024).

Recreational shore-based and boat fishing is currently one of the most popular and widespread human uses in the region (Ryan et al., 2022). The popularity of the site with incoming recreational fishers and their growing numbers is a key driver of conflicts, the main impacts being the depletion of stocks. Recreational fishing is an important source of economic income, livelihoods and relaxation/sport for many local people in Exmouth (Ningaloo) (Jones, 2021; Ryan et al. 2022), however the activity can potentially have significant ecological impacts. Studies note that recreational fishing in Ningaloo Marine Park is extensive (Davies et al., 2016; Mitchell et al., 2018) and has likely reduced the abundance of some targeted species outside of sanctuary zones (Cresswell et al., 2019) and possibly inside (Vanderklift et al., 2019). Recreational fishing effort and potential impacts on the marine environment are managed through a suite of measures including: Ningaloo Marine Park’s zoning scheme including sanctuary zones which prohibit recreational and commercial fishing; protected species; recreational catch and bag limits which are enforced by the Western Australian Government. With the exception of spearfishing, the same rules for recreational fishing apply in Ningaloo Marine Park (Commonwealth waters) (IUCN Consultation, 2017). However, data shows that the populations of key fish species in the Ningaloo Marine Park are declining, even within protected sanctuary zones, although other pressures aside from fishing are likely also playing a role in the decline (Vanderklift et al., 2019). The spangled emperor recreational fishery is subject to a number of state-wide restrictions and is provided extra protection in the marine park through 18 sanctuary zones, in which certain forms of fishing are not permitted. The loss of catch to sharks (depredation) is causing human-shark conflict in this area, which leads to increased pressure on fish populations and intentional injury/killing of sharks by fishers (Mitchell et al., 2018a, b, 2019). The Resilience Strategy for the Ningaloo Coast acknowledges the need to maintain fish abundance and diversity and the importance of promoting or establishing social norms to minimise take to provide for sustainable fishing opportunities (DBCA, 2023). The strategy notes the action as a ‘medium’ resilience priority.

Risk preparedness strategies for natural disasters are in place (State Party of Australia, 2010). However, there is a risk from the increasing intensity and frequency of cyclones with decreasing recovery times for corals between them (IUCN Consultation, 2017; CSIRO 2022).
The ability of the reef system to evolve and adapt to the changing environment is a major challenge when coupled with an increased risk in cyclone intensity (DBCA, 2023).

Climate change poses the greatest threat to the long-term conservation of the property. While Ningaloo is one of only three (of 29) World Heritage–listed coral reefs not expected to experience bleaching at least twice per decade by 2041 (a frequency that is likely to cause total mortality) under Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) 8.5 climate projections (Heron et al., 2017); the same models predict that bleaching will occur at least twice per decade after 2041, a frequency that will rapidly kill most corals present and prevent successful reproduction necessary for recovery of corals and annual bleaching by 2049 (Heron et al., 2018).

Several marine heat stress events have occurred in the region over the last ~15 years, including 2010/11, 2013, 2021 and 2022. Above average sea surface temperatures in 2011 and 2013 were correlated with major bleaching and loss of corals on the eastern area of the property, and to a lesser extent in the south (Depczynski et al., 2013; Holmes et al., 2017). Notably, the Ningaloo WHA is currently undergoing its most significant heat stress event to date, with major coral bleaching observed along the length of the reef, both inside and outside of the lagoon. The extent and severity of this event is beyond any previously observed. As this event is currently underway, mortality following bleaching impacts are not yet known, but likely to be high given the significance of heat stress (IUCN Consultation, 2025).

Strategies to increase resilience of ecosystems are being explored, but the risk is expected to increase (Fulton et al., 2014; Caputi et al., 2014; Lafratta et al., 2015; Feng et al., 2015; Davies et al., 2016; Jones, 2019; DBCA, 2019; NOAA, 2020). Since the risk of future bleaching events is high, strategies and ongoing investment are required to improve understanding and develop resilience (Davies et al, 2016; IUCN Consultation, 2017; Jones, 2019; DBCA, 2019).

Rising sea-levels may increase salinity in near-shore groundwater, potentially effecting subterranean habitats. CSIRO et al (2022) note the implications of climate change for the property also include increased risk of drought and increased land surface temperatures. Observed and projected impacts are notable and include: coral bleaching and flow-on effects to other key communities (e.g. invertebrates and fish) that rely on complex habitat structures that change due to repetitive bleaching, reduced coral growth rates and/or skeletal density due to ocean acidification, increased mortality in marine species, changes to connectivity with upstream supply of larvae, increased coastal erosion, change to nesting beaches for turtles – temperature changes may lead to altered sex ratios, and decline or loss of terrestrial species at the limit of their ecological tolerance (CSIRO et al 2022).

Climate change poses the biggest threat to the long-term conservation of the property (CSIRO et al, 2022). CSIRO particularly notes the unknown effects of climate change from an increased risk of drought, catastrophic fire, change in cyclone frequency, increased wave energy, change in the temperature of seawater, coral bleaching, ocean acidification, and sea level rise and its associated impacts on coastal communities and habitat (i.e. nesting habitat for turtles). The Resilience Strategy for the Ningaloo Coast was completed in 2023 (DBCA, 2023).